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DEI 


No.   (0 


PRINCIPLES  OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


LIPPINCOTT'S  LANGUAGE  SERIES 

Common   School  Series 
PATRICK'S   LESSONS  IN   LANGUAGE 

FOR    USE    IN    FOURTH,    FIFTH,    AND    SIXTH    GRADES 

224  pages.      12mo.      Postpaid,  40  cents 
PATRICK'S    LESSONS    IN    GRAMMAR 

FOR    USE    IN    SIXTH    AND    SEVENTH    GRADES 

232  pages.      12mo.      Postpaid,   50  cents 

For    Ad-Vanced    Grades 

PATRICK'S   PRINCIPLES   OF   GRAMMAR 

FOR    HIGHER    CLASSES    AND    TEACHERS'     INSTITUTES 

212  pages.      12mo.     Postpaid,  60  cents 


PRINCIPLES 


OF 


English  Grammar 


WITH  SUGGESTIONS  ON  METHOD 


FOR  USE  IN  HIGH  SCHOOLS,  SEMINARIES,  ACADEMIES 

AND   NORMAL   SCHOOLS 


BY 


J.  N.  PATRICK,  A.M. 

AUTHOR   OF   "LESSONS   IN   LANGUAGE,"    "LESSONS   IN   GRAMMAR," 
"PSYCHOLOGY     FOR    TEACHERS,"     AND    "LIGHT    ON    THE     ROAD." 


PHILADELPHIA    AND    LONDON 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 

1903 


Copyright,  1903, 

BY 

J.  B.  Lippincott  Company. 
EDUCATION  DES- 


ELECTROTYPED    AND    PRINTED    BY    J.   B.   LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY,    PHILADELPHIA,    U.S.A. 


PREFACE 
* 

This  manual  is  intended  for  use  in  secondary  schools. 
The  study  of  grammar  as  a  system  cannot  be  understood 
and  applied  by  the  average  eighth-grade  pupil.  Technical 
grammar  is  too  abstract  for  pupils  in  the  grammar  grades. 
Only  those  fundamental  principles  of  grammar  that  every 
one  must  know  in  order  to  understand  the  structure  of  the 
sentence  and  to  appreciate  literature  are  presented  and 
illustrated,  yet  the  author  has  not  evaded  or  left  without  an 
opinion,  distinctly  stated,  those  perplexing  points  which 
often  annoy  a  teacher.  A  careful  examination  of  this  book 
will  justify  the  following  statements  of  its  special  features  : 

First. — It  presents  in  the  introduction  a  brief  but  com- 
prehensive statement  of  the  principles  of  our  language. 

Second. — It  presents  a  concise  review  of  the  parts  of 
speech. 

Third. — It  presents  a  new,  simple,  and  logical  treatment 
of  the  grammatical  terms. 

Fourth. — It  presents  a  comprehensive  discussion  of  the 
uses  of  phrases  and  clauses,  their  like  uses  illustrated. 

Fifth. — It  presents  a  clear  and  logical  discussion  of  the 
complements  and  objects  of  verbs,  their  unlike  uses  fully 
illustrated. 

Sixth. — It  presents  a  simple  classification  of  verbs  and 
verb-phrases. 

5 

54H13 


6  PREFACE. 

Seventh. — It  presents  an  unusually  complete  illustration 
of  the  uses  of  infinitives  and  participles. 

Eighth. — It  presents  test  questions  and  sentence-making 
exercises,  which  compel  the  pupil  to  study  the  text,  to 
think,  to  construct  sentences,  to  use  his  learning. 

Ninth. — It  presents  ten  common  faults  to  be  avoided  in 
construction. 

Tenth. — It  presents  the  most  important  rules  of  Syntax 
and  practically  applies  them. 

Eleventh. — It  presents  models  for  parsing  the  parts  of 
speech  and  for  the  analysis  of  sentences. 

Twelfth. — It  presents  a  practical  treatment  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  capitalization,  punctuation,  and  paragraphing. 

Thirteenth.  —  It  presents  a  valuable  exercise  in  the 
transformation  of  sentences — grammatical  equivalents. 

Fourteenth. — It  presents  a  specimen  exercise  in  the 
proper  choice  of  words  or  Faulty  Diction. 

Fifteenth. — It  presents  many  suggestions  on  method  in 
teaching  this  subject.  The  author's  long  and  varied  ex- 
perience as  a  teacher  and  superintendent  of  schools  privi- 
leges him  to  make  suggestions  in  the  belief  that  they  will  be 
valuable  to  young  teachers. 

This  work  is  not  a  part  of  a  series  of  language  texts  ;  it 
is  an  independent  book.  A  part  of  several  of  the  exercises 
is  taken  from  the  author's  "  Lessons  in  Grammar,"  the 
advanced  book  of  his  common-school  series. 

J.  N.  P. 

St.   Louis,   April,   1903. 


EXERCISE 

CONTENTS 

PAGE 

11 

I. 

22 

II. 
III. 

Adjectives 

.       36 

IV. 

Verbs. — Verb-Phrases 

40 

V. 
VI. 

Adverbs 

50 
63 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

Prepositions. — Conjunctions. — Interjections  .... 

Grammatical  Terms. — General  View 

The  Sentence. — Use. — Structure 

69 

78 
81 

X. 

Phrases 

.      84 

XI. 

Clauses     

.      87 

XII. 

Copula. — Complement. — Object 

.       91 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX 

Peculiar  Uses  of  Nouns  and  Adjectives     , 96 

Varied  Uses  of  Words 112 

The  Sentence. — Subject. — Predicate. — Principal,  Sub- 

Tr\nsformation   of  Sentences 35 

XX. 

Capitals 

.    142 

XXI. 
XXII. 

145 

.     168 

XXIII. 

190 

7 

GRAMMAR  IN  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 

"The  fourth  window  of  the  soul  opened  in  the  elementary  school 
is  grammar,  wherein  the  child  is  made  to  get  a  glimpse  of  the  logical 
structure  of  language  in  which  is  revealed  the  logical  structure  of  the 
intellect ;  he  gets  a  power  to  discriminate  and  hold  fast  the  distinction 
between  what  is  said  and  the  form  of  saying  it.  He  gets  a  scientific 
glimpse  of  the  forms  or  laws  of  all  speech.  He  learns  to  separate 
the  sound,  or  the  printed  form,  from  the  meaning  which  he  gives  to 
the  word,  and  he  learns  to  see  the  form  or  law  which  belongs  to  his 
mind  and  gives  it  a  logical  structure  ;  he  discriminates  verbs,  nouns, 
adjectives,  adverbs,  pronouns,  and  connectives,  a  kind  of  discrimina- 
tion which  he  is  not  able  to  do  at  all  except  by  introspection.  The 
child  gains  very  rapidly  in  his  power  of  introspection  by  his  study  of 
grammar  ;  it  is  undoubtedly  the  hardest  study  that  he  has  yet  reached 
in  his  course.  In  arithmetic  he  is  obliged  to  discriminate  quantity 
from  quality,  and  learns  to  think  in  directions  of  quantity  alone. 
This  is  a  severe  discipline,  but  it  is  not  so  difficult  for  him  to  learn  as 
the  discrimination  between  the  printed  or  spoken  word  and  the  kind 
of  meaning  which  the  mind  gives  to  the  word. 

"This  grammatical  discipline  which  seems  useless  to  many  people 
in  our  time  is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  all  the  branches  of  study  in 
the  common  school  ;  the  grammatical  study  opens  the  windows  of 
the  soul  looking  inward  and  revealing  the  structure  of  the  soul  just 
as  outward  sense  and  the  sciences  of  nature  reveal  the  structure  of 
the  earth  and  the  elements  of  matter.  It  is  necessary  to  train  the 
power  of  introspection  through  grammar  in  order  to  enable  the  hu- 
man being  to  discriminate  what  is  only  blind  feeling  and  prejudice 
from  clear  ideas  and  principles  ;  without  which  power  of  introspec- 
tion motives  cannot  be  purified,  and  especially  the  ethical  and  the 
moral  cannot  be  discriminated  from  mere  instinct  and  selfish  im- 
pulse."— Dr.   William  T.    Harris. 

9 


"  Instruction  without  practice  cannot  impart  skill,  and 
hence  cannot  make  an  artist.  The  old-time  attempt  to  teach 
the  art  of  using  good  English,  by  means  of  technical  gram- 
mar, is  an  illustration  of  this  error.  This  attempt  was  based 
on  the  false  notion  that  skill  in  speech  and  writing  is  a 
necessary  result  of  a  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  language — 
an  error  still  too  common  in  American  schools,  and  especially 
in  elementary  schools,  whose  pupils  are  too  young  to  appre- 
hend or  apply  abstract  principles  in  any  art." — E.  E.  White. 


10 


Principles  of  English  Grammar 


Introduction, 

Grammar  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  general 
principles  of  language.  English  grammar  is  the  science 
which  treats  of  the  principles  of  the  English  language. 

In  the  grades  below  the  high  school  a  pupil  should  learn 
at  least  the  four  most  important  principles  of  elementary 
grammar, — viz.,  (1)  He  should  learn  the  logical  method  by 
which  words  are  classed  as  parts  of  speech.  (2)  He 
should  learn  the  simple  English  system  of  inflection.  (3) 
He  should  learn  how  to  apply  the  most  important  rules 
of  syntax.  (4)  He  should  learn  to  construct  the  several 
kinds  of  sentences.  These  four  fundamental  essentials  can 
be  learned  by  the  average  pupil  in  the  common  school 
grades.  Unfortunately  many  pupils  do  not  learn  them 
there  or  elsewhere. 

Many  teachers  are  content  to  hear  their  pupils  recite 

grammatical  definitions,  analyze  sentences  by  memorized 

formulae,  and  parse  words  by  ear.     Why  is  it  that  many 

graduates  of  high  schools  cannot  correctly  spell  the  words 

used  in  an  ordinary  business  letter  ?     Why  is  it  that  a 

large  majority  of  the  graduates  of  our  commercial  schools 

cannot  correctly  spell,  capitalize,  punctuate,  and  divide  into 

paragraphs  a  dictated  letter  ?     It  is  because  they  were  not 

methodically  and  persistently  drilled  in  word-study   and 

sentence-making  in  the  grammar  and  high  school  grades. 

11 


12  INTRODUCTION. 

Instruction  in  word  study,  practice  in  composing,  and  in 
applying  the  most  important  rules  of  syntax  require  daily 
drills  in  the  use  of  every-day  English.  It  is  a  teachers 
duty  to  know  that  his  pupils  are  thoroughly  grounded  in 
the  fundamental  principles  of  English  grammar.  The  mas- 
tery of  the  essential  facts  of  a  science  carries  with  it  the 
correct  use  of  much  unimportant  detail.  One  learns  to 
use  language  correctly  only  by  a  reflective  use  of  it  in  the 
expression  of  his  own  thoughts.  One  learns  to  appreciate 
good  literature  in  only  one  way, — by  studying  good  litera- 
ture. Inspiration  is  born  of  inspiration.  More  inspiration 
can  be  gained  from  the  study  of  famous  authors  than 
by  criticising  the  faults  of  poor  ones. 


Inflection. 

Inflection. — The  change  made  in  the  form  of  a  word, 
either  to  show  changes  of  its  own  meaning  or  to  adapt  it  to 
be  used  with  other  words,  is  called  its  inflection. 

Examples. — By  changing  a  vowel  in  the  singular  noun 
man  we  make  the  plural  noun  men.  By  adding  s  to  man 
we  make  the  singular  possessive  man's;  by  adding  s  to 
men  we  make  the  plural  possessive  men's.  From  run  we 
may  make  runs,  ran,  running.  By  adding  s  to  horse  we 
make  horses,  merely  a  different  form  of  horse.  It  should 
be  clear  that  inflectional  changes  do  not  make  new  words, 
but  other  forms  of  words.  The  inflection  of  a  noun  is 
called  its  declension  ;  the  inflection  of  a  verb,  its  conjugation. 

Our  language  is  almost  inflectionless.  The  pupil  should 
master  what  little  there  is  of  inflection  before  he  enters  the 
high  school.  He  should  be  put  through  a  severe  course 
of  training  in  the  use  of  the  important  inflections ;  he 
should  be  required  to  illustrate  his  knowledge  of  inflection 
in  original  sentences. 

Nouns. — The  noun  has  only  two  case-forms,  the  nomi- 
native and  the  possessive.  The  nominative,  the  objective, 
and  the  independent  case-forms  are  alike.  If  we  place  the 
possessive  form  of  nouns  with  the  limiting  adjectives,  the 
noun  has  only  one  case-form,  the  nominative.  The  noun 
varies  for  case  only  to  denote  possession. 

13 


14  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Pronouns. — Personal  pronouns  have  fixed  forms  for 
different  uses,  number-forms,  person-forms,  gender-forms, 
and  case-forms.  These  forms  should  be  mastered  and 
their  uses  exhibited  in  original  sentences. 

Verbs. — The  changes  in  the  form  of  the  verb  to  corre- 
spond to  changes  in  its  subject  are  very  limited.  With  the 
exception  of  the  verb  to  be  in  the  indicative  mode,  present 
and  past  tenses,  singular  number,  there  are  but  few  changes 
in  the  form  of  the  English  verb  to  denote  person,  number, 
tense,  mode,  or  voice. 

Adjectives. — Most  adjectives  are  inflected  to  show  dif- 
ferences of  degree.  With  the  exception  of  two  adjectives, 
this  and  that,  the  adjective  keeps  the  same  form,  whether 
joined  to  a  singular  or  to  a  plural  noun.  This  and  that 
have  the  plurals  these  and  those. 

Adverbs. — Many  adverbs,  especially  those  denoting 
manner,  admit  of  comparison,  and  are  compared  like 
adjectives. 

The  preposition,  the  conjunction,  and  the  interjection  have 
no  variation  of  form ;  they  are  called  the  uninflected  parts 
of  speech,  or  invariables. 

From  the  foregoing  brief  review  of  inflection  it  is  seen 
that  but  few  forms  are  found  in  English,  and  that  these  are 
easily  learned  as  a  part  of  the  content  of  the  expression. 
English  is  primarily  a  logical  language  and  secondarily  a 
formal  language.  Logic  and  position  determine  relations ; 
hence  the  disciplinary  value  of  the  study. 

The  structure  of  the  English  sentence  is  very  simple. 
The  kind  of  thought  to  be  expressed  determines  the  struc- 
ture of  the  sentence  that  expresses  it.     A  single,  simple 


INFLECTION.  15 

thought  is  expressed  by  a  simple  sentence ;  a  complex 
thought  by  a  complex  sentence ;  consecutive  coordinate 
thought  by  a  compound  sentence.  The  kind  of  sentence 
describes  the  mental  state.  If  the  writer  desires  to  convey 
to  the  reader  a  fact  or  a  truth,  he  uses  the  declarative  form 
of  the  sentence ;  if  he  wishes  to  elicit  information,  he  uses 
the  interrogative  form  of  the  sentence ;  if  he  wishes  the 
reader  to  do  something,  he  uses  the  imperative  form  of  the 
sentence ;  if  he  wishes  to  express  strong  feeling  or  emo- 
tion, he  uses  the  exclamatory  form  of  the  sentence. 
Pope's  familiar  couplet, — 

' '  True  ease  in  writing  comes  from  art  not  chance, 
As  those  move  easiest  who  have  learned  to  dance," 

is  a  lecture  on  method  in  teaching  English.  A  pupil's 
greatest  need  is  the  ability  to  give  clear  expression  to  his 
learning.  This  power  he  can  acquire  in  only  one  way, — 
by  giving  expression  to  his  thoughts  orally  and  with  a  pen. 
Many  a  bright  and  deserving  young  man  has  failed  to  secure 
a  desirable  position  because  of  the  mistakes  in  his  letter  of 
application.  The  average  eighth-grade  pupil  cannot  write 
a  correctly  and  concisely  worded  letter,  or  a  clean,  strong 
composition  on  the  most  familiar  subject.  He  has  not 
learned  how  to  give  expression  to  his  impressions.  He 
needs  methodical  training  in  sentence-building,  in  copying, 
in  reproduction,  and  in  writing  compositions  on  familiar 
subjects.  "  Write,  write,  write,  there  is  no  way  to  learn  to 
write  except  by  writing,"  said  Emerson,  the  wisest  of  his 
century.  The  pupil  should  be  led  to  see  that  the  frequent 
use  of  the  pen  under  the  careful  editorial  guidance  of  a 
competent  teacher  is  the  only  true  method  of  disclosing 
and  removing  defects  which   otherwise  might  never  be 


16  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

brought  to  his  knowledge.  No  other  method  of  teaching 
English  will  make  the  correct  forms  of  language  familiar. 

If  more  of  the  time  now  spent  in  many  schools  in 
reciting  the  facts  of  grammar  were  spent  in  expressing 
original  thought,  it  would  not  be  long  until  the  average 
high  school  graduate  could  write  a  correct  application  for  a 
situation  or  express  in  ten  words  a  ten-word  message.  He 
cannot  do  it  now,  although  he  has  studied  text-book  gram- 
mar for  years.  He  has  declined  nouns  and  pronouns,  con- 
jugated verbs,  compared  adjectives  and  adverbs,  imprisoned 
sentences  in  diagrams,  but  still  he  cannot  correctly  describe 
an  event  nor  state  a  fact  in  clean,  concise  English.  Parsing 
and  analysis  may  help  indirectly ;  the  former  by  way  of 
fixing  what'  little  there  is  of  inflection,  the  latter  by  way  of 
exhibiting  the  structure  of  sentences.  Accuracy  in  the  use 
of  language  is  acquired  through  the  reflective  use  of  words 
in  the  expression  of  original  thought  and  by  the  imitation 
of  excellent  models,  not  by  rules  and  theory.  Clearness 
in  speaking  and  in  writing  is  acquired  only  by  thinking  and 
writing.  Threescore  and  ten  years  spent  in  analyzing  sen- 
tences and  parsing  words  would  not  materially  increase  the 
pupil's  vocabulary  or  develop  a  love  for  literature. 

It  matters  not  to  the  pupil  whether  we  have  three  or 
four  modes,  if  he  uses  the  language  clearly  and  forcibly. 
In  the  study  of  language,  especially  the  English,  theory 
without  practice  has  little  or  no  value.  The  ability  to 
quote  a  grammar  from  the  title-page  to  the  end  would  in 
no  way  improve  the  speech  of  the  unthinking.  The  mere 
recitation  of  grammatical  facts  will  no  more  make  correct 
speakers  and  writers  than  the  mere  recitation  of  moral 
maxims  will  make  good  citizens.  Pupils  should  learn  to 
use  good  English  in  the  schools.    By  good  English  is  meant 


INFLECTION.  17 

the  English  used  by  the  first  writers,  by  the  cultivated  and 
refined.  It  is  not  governed  by  a  book  of  arbitrary  rules. 
No  power  yet  exerted  has  been  able  to  establish  a  fixed 
and  immovable  standard  of  written  English.  The  style  of 
written  and  spoken  English  varies.  Language  is  an  instru- 
ment, a  tool,  and  changes  as  the  users  of  it  change. 

Composing-. — Experience  proves  that  a  pupil  learns  to 
express  his  thoughts  in  only  one  way, — by  much  practice 
in  expressing  them.  Expression  is  the  soul  of  mental  life. 
"  Composing,1'  says  L.  H.  Jones,  the  distinguished  superin- 
tendent of  the  Cleveland,  Ohio,  schools,  "  is  one  of  the  most 
important  agencies  in  developing  power  to  think  and  in  a 
mastery  of  expression.  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  instrumen- 
talities in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge ;  because  to  write 
a  thoroughly  good  composition  on  any  subject  requires 
a  comprehensive  view  of  it  as  a  whole,  a  knowledge  of  detail, 
and  a  discriminative  appreciation  of  the  essentials." 

Dr.  E.  E.  White  says, — 

1 '  The  stupid  custom  of  teaching  formal  analysis  and  parsing  before 
practical  composition  richly  deserves  the  ridicule  now  heaped  upon 
it ;  but  is  there  not  evidence  of  a  tendency  to  the  opposite  extreme? 
It  now  looks  as  if  there  would  soon  be  an  opportunity  to  laugh  at  the 
equally  futile  attempt  to  teach  the  art  of  correct  speech  by  haphazard, 
cut-feed  language  lessons,  some  of  which  are  about  as  mechanical  as 
the  filling  of  a  basket  with  chips,  and  result  in  about  the  same  kind 
of  skill.  The  function  of  language  is  to  express  thought,  and  no  exer- 
cise in  the  use  of  language  can  impart  much  skill  that  does  not  begin 
with  the  awakening  of  thought  and  end  with  its  correct  expression. ' ' 

It  is  encouraging  to  believe  that  the  silly  picture  story- 
books used  in  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  grades  have  only  a 

little  longer  to  live — to  live  by  sufferance. 

2 


18  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Clearness  and  conciseness  of  expression  are  most  surely 
attained  through  the  use  of  the  pen  in  the  expression  of 
original  thought.  Frequent  exercises  in  writing  short  com- 
positions on  familiar  subjects  from  outlines  is  a  valuable 
exercise,  and  should  extend  through  the  grammar  grades. 
A  pupil  should  never  be  required  to  write  on  a  subject  that 
he  does  not  know  something  about,  or  about  which  he 
cannot  get  information  from  the  library.  Require  him  to 
rewrite  the  composition  until  each  of  the  principal  points  is 
brought  out  and  properly  related.  The  knowledge  which 
a  pupil  acquires  in  school  will  be  of  little  value  if  he  be 
unable  to  express  what  he  knows  clearly,  concisely,  and 
forcibly.  The  art  of  expression  is  acquired  by  only  a  few, 
and  by  them  only  by  much  practice  in  formal  expression, 
oral  and  written. 

Criticism. — The  nature  and  extent  of  the  criticism  must 
depend  on  the  age  of  the  pupil  and  the  grade  of  work  that 
he  is  doing.  With  pupils  in  the  first  five  grades,  the  criti- 
cism should  not  extend  at  first  beyond  the  faults  of  the 
individual  sentence.  Until  the  pupil  can  properly  construct 
a  sentence,  over-criticism  would  discourage  him.  Require 
the  pupil  to  express  the  same  thought  in  as  many  different 
ways  as  he  can  invent.  Write  on  the  blackboard  the  indi- 
vidual sentences  that  exhibit  the  most  flagrant  violations  of 
the  laws  of  good  English.  Discuss  and  correct  the  faulty 
sentences  in  class  recitation. 

School  children  are  usually  in  a  healthy  state,  morally 
and  intellectually.  They  are  generally  optimistic  in  their 
views  of  life.  A  word  of  encouragement  to  the  average 
pupil  is  worth  more  to  him  in  his  struggles  to  become  than  a 
volume  of  pessimistic  cant  about  the  natural  sinfulness  and 


INFLECTION.  19 

perverseness  of  his  nature.  Train  him  to  recognize  the 
responsibilities  of  life,  but  do  not  close  every  school  exer- 
cise with  a  pointless  moral  lecture.  Revision  by  the  pupil 
is  the  most  helpful  criticism.  Only  the  most  ludicrous  mis- 
takes should  be  criticised  by  the  teacher.  Over-criticism 
or  unnecessary  censure  discourages  learners,  whether  in 
the  grades  or  in  the  high  school. 

False  Syntax. — An  occasional  exercise  in  correcting 
faulty  forms  of  expression  is  valuable,  notwithstanding  the 
fashionable  cry,  "  No  false  syntax."  The  correct  form 
should  be  substituted  by  the  pupil  for  the  incorrect  one, 
and  the  reason  given  for  the  change.  A  knowledge  of  syn- 
tactical rules  will  assist  the  learner  in  dislodging  incorrect 
forms  of  expression  and  in  substituting  correct  ones.  The 
facts  of  grammar  should  aid  him  in  undoing  habit. 

Technical  Grammar. — A  word  in  regard  to  the  study 
of  technical  grammar  in  the  grammar  grades.  It  is  self- 
evident  that  until  a  pupil  can  think  intelligently,  text-book 
rules  have  little  or  no  meaning  to  him.  A  pupil  may  quote 
a  text-book  on  grammar  from  the  title-page  to  the  end  and 
not  be  able  to  write  a  clean  and  concise  one-page  letter. 
Ample  evidence  that  the  statement  is  true  is  on  file  in  the 
office  of  every  county  superintendent  in  the  United  States. 
Experience  proves  that  the  mere  recitation  of  grammatical 
rules  does  not  develop  thought-power,  cultivate  the  art  of 
expression,  or  a  love  for  good  literature.  Teacher  and 
pupil  should  ever  bear  in  mind  the  general  truth,  that  use 
gives  still  greater  use.  This  universal  and  immutable  fact 
is  the  essence  of  pedagogics. 

In  teaching  English  grammar  the  teacher  should  ever 
bear  in  mind  three  important  facts  : 


20  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

First.  That  grammar  is  not  an  exact  science.  All  agree 
that  English  grammar  is  a  systematic  description  of  the 
essential  principles  of  the  English  language.  There  is, 
however,  a  diversity  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  essentials. 

Second.  That  in  English  the  meaning  depends  upon  the 
arrangement  of  the  grammatical  terms.  Ambiguity  and 
obscurity  result  more  frequently  from  disregard  or  igno- 
rance of  the  principles  of  order  than  from  a  poor  choice 
of  words. 

Third.  That  time  spent  in  the  schoolroom,  especially 
in  the  grades  below  the  high  school,  in  discussing  technical 
grammatical  distinctions  is  injudiciously  spent.  An  un- 
necessary exhibition  of  much  wisdom  on  the  part  of  an 
author  or  teacher  confuses  pupils.  Some  of  the  disadvan- 
tages of  knowing  much  is  often  seen  in  the  schoolroom. 

But  I  must  not  be  misunderstood.  Conscious  knowl- 
edge of  the  essentials  of  a  subject  is  absolutely  necessary 
in  order  to  teach  it  properly.  Enthusiasm  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher  is  born  of  a  conscious  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject in  hand,  emphasized  by  a  good  method  in  teaching  it. 

Disciplinary  Value. — I  cannot  close  these  introductory 
pages  without  saying  a  word  in  advocacy  of  the  discipli- 
nary value  of  a  methodical  and  persistent  study  of  English 
in  all  grades  of  the  schools.  Until  recently  the  disciplinary 
value  of  the  study  of  English  was  questioned  by  a  large 
majority  of  the  professional  teachers.  This  fact  is,  per- 
haps, the  reason  why  the  study  is  not  now  receiving  the 
attention  in  the  common  schools  that  it  so  clearly  deserves. 
Strange,  indeed,  it  is  that  the  disciplinary  value  of  the  study 
of  a  language  which  introduces  the  pupil  to  the  finest  body 
of  literature  in  the  world  was  ever  questioned  by  teachers 


INFLECTION.  21 

of  average  intelligence.  English  is  comparatively  an  unin- 
fected language.  In  this  respect  it  has  a  decided  advan- 
tage over  the  highly  inflected  languages  in  the  fact  that  it 
requires  less  of  formalism  and  cramming  than  they  require. 
English  is  primarily  a  logical  language,  and  secondarily  a 
formal  language.  Logic  and  position  determine  relations ; 
hence  the  disciplinary  value  of  the  study.  In  English 
memory  is  subordinated  to  reason.  If  the  language  is 
taught  as  a  logical  language,  the  pupil  will  not  only  learn 
to  use  it  correctly,  but  understandingly.  The  small  num- 
ber of  syntactical  forms  in  English  compared  to  those  in 
the  highly  inflected  languages  shows  the  value  of  English 
as  a  means  of  training  over  the  so-called  classical  languages. 
English  is  the  most  analytical  of  languages.  Its  sentence 
structure  is  logical,  not  formal.  The  study  of  the  highly 
inflected  languages  has  to  do  chiefly  with  words  ;  the  study 
of  English,  with  grammatical  terms  as  wholes.  Parsing 
has  to  do  with  words  as  parts  of  speech ;  logical  or  thought 
analysis,  with  the  grammatical  terms  as  units.  With  this 
form  of  language-study,  the  inquiring  pupil  is  delighted. 
The  study  of  English  for  training  will  yet  take  its  place  along 
with  mathematics  and  science.  English  offers  the  only 
practical  linguistic  training  for  the  mass  of  our  people. 


EXERCISE   I. 
Nouns. 

NOTES. — I.  It  is  a  -well-established  fact  that  spir- 
ited, methodical  reviews  perfect  impressions.  It  is 
also  a  well-established  fact  that  there  is  no  other 
school  exercise  that  is  as  worthless  as  a  timid, 
pulseless  review.  The  value  of  a  review  exercise, 
therefore,  depends  almost  wholly  upon  the  method 
of  the  teacher.    Method  either  inspires  or  stupefies. 

II.  A  brief  review  of  the  parts  of  speech  will 
prove  both  interesting  and  profitable  to  students  in 
high  schools,  also  to  young  teachers.  A  clear  idea 
of  the  logical  classification  of  the  words  of  our 
language  is  first  among  the  important  principles  of 
English  grammar. 

A  noun  is  the  name  of  anything.  The  word  noun  as 
used  in  this  exercise  denotes  all  objects,  material  and 
immaterial,  visible  and  invisible ;  as,  John,  man,  St.  Louis, 
dog,  water,  air,  sun,  goodness,  virtue,  charity,  whiteness,  army, 
flock,  school,  herd.  It  is  not  the  thing  named,  but  the  name 
of  the  thing  we  call  a  noun.  The  word  noun  means  name. 
Whenever  a  letter,  sl  word,  or  a  symbol  of  any  kind  is  spoken 
of  as  an  object,  the  name  of  the  object  is  a  noun ;  as,  the 
letter  A  is  the  first  letter  of  the  English  alphabet ;  the  sign 
X  when  placed  between  two  numbers  means  that  the  first 
is  to  be  multiplied  by  the  second. 

Kinds  of  Nouns. — There  are  four  principal  kinds  of 

nouns, — common  nouns,  proper  nouns,  collective   nouns, 

and  abstract  nouns. 
22 


NOUNS.  23 

NOTE. — Verbal  nouns,  nouns  derived  from  verbs, 
"will  be  discussed  in  a  later  exercise. 

A  common  noun  is  a  name  that  applies  to  every  indi- 
vidual of  a  class  of  objects  ;    as,  boy,  girl,  chair,  river,  town. 

A  proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  object ;  as, 
St.  Louis,  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  Rocky  Mountains,  Missis- 
sippi River,  Philadelphia. 

A  collective  noun  is  one  that,  in  the  singular  form, 
denotes  more  than  one  object;  as, flock,  army,  class,  com- 
mittee, congregation. 

An  abstract  noun  is  one  that  denotes  a  quality  consid- 
ered apart  from  the  object  to  which  it  belongs ;  as,  pity, 
mercy,  beauty,  goodness,  truth. 

Verbal  Nouns. — The  names  of  actions,  such  as  to  love,  to 
walk,  to  dance,  loving,  walking,  dancing,  are  called  verbal 
nouns, — verbals. 

Abstract  nouns  are  formed  from  nouns,  adjectives,  and 
verbs.  From  the  common  noun  peer,  we  form  peerage ; 
from  child,  childhood ;  from  master,  mastery.  From  the 
adjective  good,  goodness ;  from  wise,  wisdom ;  from  red, 
redness  ;  from  prudent,  prudence.  From  the  verb  protect, 
protection  ;  from  move,  motion  ;  from  reflect,  reflection. 

To  nouns  belong  person,  number,  gender,  and  case. 

Person  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  which 
shows  the  relation  of  the  speaker  to  the  object  spoken  of. 
There  are  three  persons,  ih.Q  first,  the  second,  and  the  third. 
The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker ;  the  second,  the  per- 
son spoken  to  ;  the  third,  the  person  spoken  of. 


24  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Number  is  that  form  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  dis- 
tinguishes one  object  from  more  than  one.  There  are  two 
number-forms, — the  singular  number  is  used  when  only 
one  thing  is  meant,  and  the  plural  number  is  used  when 
more  than  one  thing  is  meant. 

Gender  is  a  distinction  of  nouns  in  regard  to  sex.  There 
are  two  genders,  the  masculine  gender  and  the  feminine 
gender.  Names  of  the  male  sex  are  nouns  of  the  mascu- 
line gender ;  names  of  the  female  sex  are  nouns  of  the 
feminine  gender. 

Case  denotes  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  to 
other  words  in  a  sentence.  There  are  four  cases,  the 
nominative,  the  objective,  the  possessive,  and  the  inde- 
pendent. A  noun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the 
nominative  case ;  a  noun  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb,  a 
participle,  a  preposition,  or  an  infinitive,  is  in  the  objective 
case ;  a  noun  used  to  denote  possession  is  in  the  posses- 
sive case ;  a  noun  used  to  compel  attention  is  in  the  inde- 
pendent case ;  that  is,  it  is  not  part  of  the  sentence  with 
which  it  stands,  therefore  it  is  grammatically  independent. 
The  noun  has  only  two  case-forms,  the  nominative  and 
the  possessive. 

Parsing. 

Parsing  a  word  is  giving  a  complete  description  of  it 
as  it  is  used  in  the  sentence. 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  Drills  in  parsing  should  be 
more  than  formal  recitations.  They  should  train 
pupils  in  the  correct  and  economic  use  of  ■words. 
The  use  of  language,  good  or  bad,  is  a  growth. 
Teachers  should  ever  be  on  the  alert  in  regard  to 
the  language  used  by  their  pupils  in  the  recitation. 


NOUNS.  25 

Accuracy  of  expression  depends  upon  clearness 
of  thought.  The  time  to  correct  a  pupil's  speech  is 
"when  it  needs  correcting.  The  only  cure  for  the 
use  of  bad  English  is  revision  until  the  incorrect 
statement  or  illustration  is  changed  into  a  clean, 
concise  statement.  Teachers  should  constantly 
bear  in  mind  the  fact  that  one  lesson  in  the  reflective 
use  of  words  in  the  expression  of  original  thought 
is  worth  to  the  pupil  many  text-book  recitations  of 
grama tical  facts. 

In  parsing  a  noun  tell : 

1.  The  class  to  which  it  belongs. 

2.  The  person,  gender  (if  a  gender  noun),  number,  case. 

3.  The  use  in  the  sentence. 

Parse  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  The  proper  rest  for  man  is  change  of  occupation. 

2.  It  was  Pentecost,  the  feast  of  gladness. 

3.  Man  became  a  living  soul. 

4.  Many  people  live  in  St.  Louis,  the  metropolis  of  the  West. 

5.  The  jury  gave  their  verdict. 

6.  The  congregation  adjourned  for  one  week. 

7.  His  bravery  was  applauded. 

8.  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again. 

9.  To  love  is  to  live. 

10.  Loving  is  living. 

11.  Every  why  has  a  wherefore. 

12.  Justice  should  be  tempered  with  mercy. 

13.  John,  come  to  me. 

14.  The  congregation  came  in  a  body. 

15.  "  Land  of  the  beautiful  and  brave, 

The  freeman's,  the  martyr's  grave, 

The  nursery  of  giant  men, 

Whose  deeds  are  linked  with  every  glen  ! 

My  own  green  land  forever." 

—  Whittier. 


26  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Test  Questions. 

1.  What  is  a  noun  ?     Name  one  of  each  of  the  principal 
kinds  of  nouns. 

2.  In  what  particular  respect  does  a  common  noun  differ 
from  a  proper  noun  ? 

3.  In  what  particular  respect  does  an  abstract  noun  differ 
from  a  collective  noun  ? 

4.  Show  that  abstract  nouns  may  be  derived  from  com- 
mon nouns,  from  adjectives,  and  from  verbs. 

5.  What  four  properties  belong  to  nouns  ? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  person  as  the  word  is  used  in 
grammar  ?    How  many  persons  are  there  ? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  number  as  used  in  grammar  ?    How 
many  numbers  are  there  ? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  gender  as  used  in  grammar  ?    How 
many  genders  are  there  ? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase,  a  gender  noun  f 

10.  What  is  meant  by  case  as  used  in  grammar  ?     How 
many  cases  have  nouns  ? 

11.  How  many  case-forms  have  nouns?     Which  case- 
forms  are  alike  ?    Illustrate. 


EXERCISE    II. 

Pronouns. 

Personal,  Relative,  Adjective,  Interrogative. 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  Only  the  most  important 
facts  in  regard  to  the  uses  of  pronouns  are  given  in 
this  exercise.  The  pupil  should  be  required  to  use 
the  facts  in  original  illustrative  sentences  until  he 
knows  how  to  use  them.  He  should  be  required  to 
decline  each  pronoun,  then  use  it  orally  in  a  sen- 
tence. A  mere  memory  recitation  of  the  text-book 
definitions  and  illustrations  does  not  usually  give 
an  average  pupil  a  clear  idea  of  the  form  and  use  of 
this  substitute  part  of  speech. 

Personal  Pronouns. 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  that  stands  for  a  noun. 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  principal  classes, — per- 
sonal, relative,  and  adjective. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  one  that  stands  for  a  noun,  and 
shows  by  its  form  whether  it  is  of  the  first,  the  second,  or 
the  third  person. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  /,  thou,  you,  he,  she,  it. 

Compound  Personal  Pronouns. 

Pronouns  formed  by  adding  self  or  selves  to  certain 
simple  personal  pronouns,  as,  myself,  himself,  herself,  your- 
self, itself,  themselves,  yourselves,  ourselves,  are  called  com- 
pound personal  pronouns. 

27 


28 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Declensions  of  Personal  Pronouns. 


Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 

Singular. 

I 

my  or  mine 

me 

Plural. 

we 

our  or  ours 

us 

Singular. 

thou 

thy  or  thine 

thee 

Plural. 

you 

your  or  yours 

you 

Singular. 

he 

his 

him 

Plural. 

they 

their  or  theirs 

them 

Singular. 

she 

her  or  hers 

her 

Plural. 

they 

their  or  theirs 

them 

Singular. 

it 

its 

it 

Plural. 

they 

their  or  theirs 

them 

Special  Uses  of  It. 

It  has  a  number  of  special  uses.  It  is  a  very  conve- 
nient little  word  on  account  of  its  representative  character. 
The  most  important  of  its  special  uses  are  the  following : 

1.  It  is  very  often  used  as  the  grammatical  subject,  in- 
stead of  the  phrase  or  clause  which  is  the  real,  or  logical 
subject  and  which  follows  the  verb ;  as,  It  is  a  duty  to  love 
humanity.  It  is  doubtful  whether  I  will  go.  It  is  easy  to 
live  after  the  worlds  opinion. 

2.  It  is  often  used  in  a  vague  sense  as  the  subject  of 
verbs  descriptive  of  the  weather ;  as,  It  rains.  It  is  dark. 
It  is  cloudy.     It  thunders.     It  snows. 

3.  It  is  used  as  a  subject  to  represent  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun as  an  attribute  of  any  number,  gender,  or  person  ;  as, 
It  is  I.     It  is  they.     It  is  she.     It  is  James.     It  is  you. 

4.  It  is  sometimes  used  as  the  impersonal  object  of  a 
verb ;  as,  I  made  up  my  mind  to  foot  it.  He  lorded  it  over 
his  servants. 


PRONOUNS.  29 

Relative  Pronouns. 

A  relative  pronoun  is  one  used  to  represent  a  preceding 
noun  or  pronoun,  called  the  antecedent,  and  to  connect 
with  it  a  clause.  1.  The  pupil  who  gives  attention  will 
learn.  2.  He  that  getteth  wisdom  loveth  his  own  soul.  3. 
I  have  many  things  which  I  wish  to  tell  you. 

Simple  Relative  Pronouns. 

The  simple  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  that,  as. 

Who  is  used  to  represent  persons ;  which  to  represent 
things  ;  that  and  as  to  represent  both  persons  and  things. 

The  antecedent  of  a  relative  pronoun  is  the  word,  phrase, 
or  clause  for  which  the  pronoun  stands.  It  is  the  leading 
term  of  relation,  the  relative  clause  being  the  subsequent 
term.  The  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  may  be  a  phrase  or  a 
clause;  as,  He  did  not  come,  which  I  greatly  regret.  His 
love  extends  from  the  richest  to  the  poorest,  which  in- 
cludes all. 

NOTE. — A  relative  pronoun  has  both  a  connec- 
tive and.  a  substantive  value  at  the  same  time. 
That  is,  it  does  the  work  of  two  parts  of  speech. 

We  will  now  briefly  discuss  the  relative  pronouns. 

Who.  Who  with  its  possessive  whose  is  both  singular 
and  plural.  It  refers  usually  to  living  beings,  sometimes  to 
things  ;  as,  The  city  whose  towers  he  saw  in  the  distance  is 
St.  Louis. 

Which.  Which  refers  only  to  things.  It  is  not  in- 
flected. 


30  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

What  is  equivalent  to  that  which  ;  as,  What  I  saw  I  shall 
not  tell  you  =  that  which  I  saw  I  shall  not  tell  you  =  I  shall 
not  tell  you  that  which  I  saw. 

That.  That  refers  to  either  persons  or  things.  It  is  a 
general  relative,  and  is  not  inflected.  It  is  usually  restric- 
tive, limiting  the  meaning  of  its  antecedent  in  much  the 
same  manner  as  an  adjective  would  ;  as,  He  that  I  loved  is 
dead.  The  clause  introduced  by  that  limits  or  restricts  the 
antecedent  He. 

As.  As  when  it  follows  such  is  a  relative  pronoun ;  as, 
Such  as  I  have,  give  I  unto  thee.  I  love  such  as  (those 
who)  love  me. 

Compound  Relative  Pronouns. 

The  compound  relative  pronouns  are  what,  whatever, 
whatsoever,  whoever,  whosoever,  whichever,  and  whichsoever. 
These  are  formed  from  the  simple  relatives  by  adding  the 
adverbs,  ever,  so,  soever. 

What  does  not  usually  have  an  antecedent  actually  ex- 
pressed in  the  sentence.  It  contains  within  itself  both 
antecedent  and  relative,  being  equivalent  to  that  which  ;  as, 
What  (that  which)  you  say  is  true.  I  saw  what  (that 
ivhich)  he  was  doing. 

The  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  are  declined  as 
follows  : 


Sing,  and  Plu. 

Sing,  and  Plu 

Nom. 

Who, 

Which, 

Pos. 

Whose, 

Whose, 

Obj. 

Whom. 

Which. 

PRONOUNS.  31 

That  and  what  have  no  variation.  Whoever  and  whoso- 
ever are  declined  like  who. 

NOTE. — The  misuse  of  the  relative  pronouns  who, 
which,  and  that  is  seen  in  almost  every  newspaper 
editorial  and  magazine  article.  The  distinction  be- 
tween restrictive  and  parenthetical  clauses  is  so 
commonly  ignored  that  it  has  almost  lost  its  force. 
The  distinction,  however,  exists  and  has  a  positive 
value.  When  either  which  or  who  is  used  to  introduce 
a  relative  clause,  the  clause  is  parenthetical ;  tnat 
is,  it  can  be  cut  off  without  destroying  the  sense. 
Example :  "  Mr.  Browne,  who  was  present  at  the 
meeting,  took  an  active  part  in  opposing  the  meas- 
ure." WIio  in  the  foregoing  sentence  introduces  a 
parenthetical  clause,  a  clause  that  does  not  restrict. 
The  restrictive  force  of  that  may  be  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentence :  "  He  was  the  only  one  that  could 
attend  the  meeting."  That  is  the  only  relative  that 
can  be  properly  used  in  this  sentence,  because  the 
significance  of  the  independent  sentence  depends 
upon  the  restrictive  force  of  the  clause  following 
the  word  one.  Again,  the  incorrect  use  of  which  is 
found  in  the  following  sentence:  "Jones  took  ad- 
vantage of  the  interim  to  present  the  records  which 
he  desired  to  introduce."  As  particular,  special 
records  are  referred  to,  the  clause  following  records 
should  be  introduced  by  that;  it  should  be  restric- 
tive. In  the  following  sentence  the  difference  be- 
tween the  proper  uses  of  which  and  that  is  clearly 
illustrated :  "  Mr.  Jones  took  advantage  of  the  in- 
terim, which  was  short,  to  present  the  records  that  he 
desired  to  introduce." 

A  relative  word  may  represent  a  dependent  clause ;  as, 
She  has  been  gone  all  morning,  no  one  knows  where 
(where  she  has  been  gone).  One  of  you  must  go  away.  I 
do  not  know  which  (which  one  must  go  away). 


32  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Adjective  Pronouns. 

Adjectives  that  are  used  in  the  place  of  the  nouns  which 
they  limit  are  called  adjective  pronouns.  They  represent 
nouns  understood;  as,  1.  Few  attended  the  lecture.  2. 
Some  went  away  hungry. 

Interrogative  Pronouns. 

An  interrogative  pronoun  is  one  used  to  ask  a  ques- 
tion;  as,  1.  Who  is  that?  2.  Which  one  do  you  want? 
3.  What  does  the  man  mean  ? 

In  each  of  the  following  sentences,  choose  the  proper 
pronoun  : 

1.  I  would  act  the  same  part  if  I  were  (he)  (him). 

2.  They  believe  it  is  (I)  (me). 

3.  They  believe  it  to  be  (I)  (me). 

4.  (Who)  (whom)  do  you  think  it  is  ? 

5.  (Who)  (whom)  do  you  suppose  it  to  be  ? 

6.  No  one  but  (he)  (him)  should  be  about  the  king. 

7.  It  could  not  have  been  (she)  (her). 

8.  (Who)  (whom)  did  you  say  you  met  this  morning  ? 

9.  I  saw  the  man  (who)  (whom)  they  thought  was  dead. 

10.  I  saw  the  man  (who)  (whom)  they  thought  to  be  dead. 

11.  It  is  not  for  such  as  (we)  (us)  to  sit  with  rulers. 

12.  (Who)  (whom)  do  men  say  that  I  am  ? 

13.  Tell  me  (who)  (whom)  you  are  looking  for. 

14.  (Who)  (whom)  do  they  think  him  to  be  ? 

15.  We  do  not  know  (who)  (whom)  we  serve. 

16.  I  do  not  know  (who)  (whom)  they  serve. 

17.  (Who)  (whom)  did  you  say  was  at  the  concert? 

18.  (They)  (them)  that  honor  me  I  will  honor. 

19.  Let  (she)  (her)  and  (I)  (me)  go. 

20.  (Who)  (whom)  do  they  think  he  is  ? 

21.  Do  you  know  (he)  (him)  (who)  (whom)  owns  the  house  ? 


PRONOUNS.  33 

22.  I  saw  (he)  (him)  (who)  (whom)  you  spoke  to. 

23.  (Who)  (whom)  the  court  favors  is  safe. 

24.  Will  you  fight  those  (who)  (whom)  you  know  are  right  ? 

25.  Is  James  as  old  as  (I)  (me)  ? 

Parsing. 

In  parsing  a  pronoun,  tell : 

1.  The  class  to  which  it  belongs. 

2.  The  antecedent. 

3.  The  declension,  if  it  is  inflected. 

4.  The  person,  gender  (if  it  is  a  personal  pronoun  of 

the  third  person),  number,  and  case. 

5.  The  use  in  the  sentence. 

Parse  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  I  shall  go  to  see  him  to-morrow. 

2.  She  met  her  brother  at  the  hotel. 

3.  You  see  that  he  obeys  cheerfully. 

4.  We  respect  him. 

5.  He  refused  what  was  offered  him. 

MODEL.—  What  is  a  compound  relative  pronoun. 
It  is  equivalent  to  that  ivhich,  that  being  the  antecedent 
part  and  which  the  relative.  That  may  be  parsed  as 
an  adjective  pronoun  used  as  a  noun,  object  of  the 
verb  refused.  Which  is  a  simple  relative,  subject  of 
the  verb  offered. 

6.  You  see  what  becomes  of  disobedience. 

7.  The  fur,  which  warms  a  monarch,  warmed  a  bear. 

8.  What  is  right  must  be  done. 

9.  We  respect  those  who  respect  themselves. 

10.  Every  one  reaps  what  he  sows. 

11.  He  that  has  patience  can  usually  have  what  he  needs. 

12.  Ye  are  living  poems. 

3 


34  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

13.  The  boy,  whom  you  sent  on  an  errand,  has  returned. 

14.  Are  you  the  one  for  whom  I  asked  ? 

15.  Whoever  seeks  wisdom  shall  find  it. 

MODEL. —  Whoever  is  a  compound  relative  pro- 
noun. It  is  equivalent  to  he  who,  he  being  the  ante- 
cedent part  and  who  the  relative.  He  may  be  parsed 
as  a  personal  pronoun,  subject  of  the  verb  will  find. 
Who  may  be  parsed  as  a  simple  relative,  subject  of 
the  verb  seeks. 

16.  Whoever  did  it  ought  to  be  ashamed. 

17.  He  will  give  you  whichever  you  want. 

18.  Many  will  go  to  the  fair  ;  only  a  few  will  remain  at  home. 

19.  I  used  some  and  kept  some  for  a  friend  of  mine. 

20.  I  tell  thee  thou  art  defied. 

21.  Man  cannot  conceal  what  God  would  reveal. 

22.  They  whom  the  gods  love  die  young. 

23.  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash. 

24.  Take  whichever  you  want. 

25.  These  are  the  men  some  of  whom  visited  us  yesterday. 

26.  That  is  the  same  man  that  we  met  before. 


Test  Questions.— Sentence-Making. 

1.  Into  how  many  classes  are  pronouns  divided  ? 

2.  What  is  a  simple  personal  pronoun  ?     Name  them. 

3.  How  are  the  compound  personal  pronouns  formed  ? 
Give  three  examples. 

4.  What  four  forms  have  personal  pronouns  ?     Name 
them. 

5.  How  many  case-forms  have  nouns  ?     Name  them. 

6.  What  is   a  relative  pronoun  ?     Name   the    simple 
relatives. 

7.  Why  are  the  relative  pronouns  so  called  ? 


PRONOUNS.  35 

8.  What  is  a  compound  relative  pronoun  ?  Name 
the  compound  relative  pronouns  and  show  how  each  is 
formed. 

9.  What  is  an  adjective  pronoun  ?     Name  five. 

10.  Why  are  adjective  pronouns  so  called  ? 

11.  What  is  an  interrogative  pronoun?  Name  and  use 
them  in  sentences. 

12.  In  each  of  four  sentences,  use  a  different  simple 
relative  pronoun  and  point  out  the  antecedent  term  of 
relation. 

13.  In  an  original  sentence,  show  that  the  antecedent  of 
a  relative  pronoun  may  be  a  phrase. 

14.  In  an  original  sentence,  show  that  the  antecedent  of 
a  relative  pronoun  may  be  a  clause. 

15.  In  each  of  five  sentences,  use  a  different  adjective 
pronoun  and  show  that  each  pronoun  is  capable  of  a 
double  use. 


EXERCISE   III. 

Adjectives. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  or  qualify  the 
meaning  of  a  noun. 

Adjectives  are  divided  into  two  principal  classes, — limit- 
ing and  qualifying. 

A  limiting  adjective  is  one  used  to  define  or  restrict 
the  meaning  of  a  noun  without  expressing  any  of  its  quali- 
ties ;   as,  this  pen ;   many  men ;  the  house ;  five  books. 

NOTE. — The  limiting  adjectives,  a,  an,  and  the,  are 
sometimes  called  articles.  The  further  subdivision 
of  limiting  adjectives  is  more  bookish  than  useful. 

A  qualifying  adjective  is  one  that  limits  the  application 
of  a  noun  by  denoting  some  quality  or  property  of  the 
noun  ;  as,  a  good  man  ;  a  beautiful  child  ;  a  yellow  flower ; 
a  studious  pupil ;  a  running  horse  ;  a  roaring  sea. 

Adjectives  are  compared  to  denote  different  degrees  of 
quality.  There  are  three  degrees  of  quality, — the  positive, 
the  comparative,  the  superlative. 

The  positive  degree  expresses  a  quality  without  com- 
parison ;  as,  He  is  a  righteous  man.  Thursday  was  a 
pleasant  day. 

The  comparative  degree  expresses  a  higher  or  a  lower 
quality  than  the  positive ;  as,  The  sun  is  larger  than  the 
moon.     The  march  was  less  difficult  by  night  than  by  day. 

The  comparative  degree  implies  a  comparison  of  only 
two  objects. 

36 


ADJECTIVES. 


37 


The  comparative  degree  of  most  monosyllables  is  regu- 
larly formed  by  suffixing  r  or  er  to  the  simple  adjective,  or 
positive  degree,  and  the  superlative  by  suffixing  st  or  est 
to  the  positive ;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest ;  brave,  braver, 
bravest ;   strong,  stronger,  strongest ;  bold,  bolder,  boldest. 

The  superlative  degree  expresses  the  highest  or  the 
lowest  quality ;  as,  The  dog  is  the  most  faithful  of  animals. 
The  miser  is  the  least  esteemed  of  men. 

The  superlative  degree  implies  a  comparison  of  more 
than  two  objects. 

The  comparative  degree  of  most  adjectives  of  more  than 
one  syllable  (sometimes  of  only  one)  is  formed  by  prefixing 
more  or  less,  and  the  superlative  by  prefixing  most  or  least, 
to  the  positive ;  as,  industrious,  more  industrious,  most 
industrious  ;  beautiful,  less  beautiful,  least  beautiful. 

An  adjective  of  two  syllables  is  compared  regularly, 
when  the  terminations  can  be  added  to  it  without  making 
an  awkward  word ;  as,  pretty,  prettier,  prettiest ;  noble, 
nobler,  noblest. 

Some  adjectives  form  their  comparatives  and  superla- 
tives irregularly ;  as, 


Positive. 
good  ) 
well  I 

Comparative. 
better 

Superlative. 
best 

bad  ^ 

evil  [ 

worse 

worst 

ill    J 

many  ^ 
much  { 

more 

most 

far 

farther  or  further 

farthest  or  furthest 

late 

later  or  latter 

latest  or  last 

old 

older  or  elder 

oldest  or  eldest 

38  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Compare  the  following  adjectives  : 

Lazy,  ugly,  red,  slim,  thin,  sad,  glad,  snug,  frail,  deep,  green, 
black,  great,  proud,  serene,  true,  remote,  able,  happy,  balmy,  cruel, 
prudent,  sensible,  dangerous,  virtuous,  ancient,  learned,  honorable, 
famous,  polite,  tender,  expensive,  heavy,  lucky. 

Adjectives  derived  from  verbs  are  called  participial  adjec- 
tives. Adjectives  derived  from  proper  nouns  are  called 
proper  adjectives.  What  and  which  when  used  to  ask 
questions  are  called  interrogative  adjectives.  The  only 
adjectives  that  have  a  plural  form  are  this  and  that;  plural 
these,  those.  An  adjective  implying  number  must  agree  in 
this  respect  with  the  substantive  to  which  it  relates. 

Parsing. 

In  parsing  an  adjective  tell : 

1.  The  class  to  which  it  belongs. 

2.  The  degree  of  comparison. 

3.  The  use  in  the  sentence. 

Parse  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  The  old  house  stood  by  the  lindens. 

2.  Unto  the  pure  all  things  are  pure. 

3.  I  feel  bad  early  in  the  morning. 

4.  Our  sweetest  songs  are  those  which  tell  of  saddest  thought. 

5.  Jupiter  is  larger  than  the  earth. 

6.  He  planed  the  board  smooth. 

7.  She  is  worthy  of  the  highest  praise. 

8.  Three  birds  were  killed. 

9.  Shining  characters  are  not  always  the  most  agreeable. 

10.  Give  me  this  peach  and  I  will  give  you  an  apple. 

11.  The  field  of  combat  fills  the  young  and  bold. 


ADJECTIVES.  39 

12.  The  whispering  wind   stirred   the    weeping   willow    and   the 
moaning  pine. 

13.  Columbus  had  thought  about  this  plan  for  many  years,  during 
which  time  he  had  vainly  sought  help  from  royal  courts. 

14.  He  was  a  ready  orator,  an  elegant  poet,  a  skilful  gardener,  an 
excellent  cook,  and  a  most  contemptible  sovereign. 

15.  He  is  wiser  than  he  seems. 

16.  She  is  the  most  studious  of  the  class. 

17.  Whatever  things  were  gain  to  him,  those  he  counted  loss. 

18.  A  clear,  running  brook  is  a  beautiful  sight. 

19.  The  French  soldier  shot  him  dead. 

20.  He  is  a  just,  but  not  a  generous  man. 

Test  Questions. — Sentence- Making. 

1.  Into  how  many  classes  are  adjectives  divided? 

2.  AVhat  distinguishes  a  limiting  adjective  from  a  quali- 
fying adjective? 

3.  What  does  the  word  comparison  mean  in  the  phrase 
comparison  of  adjectives  f 

4.  What  does  an  adjective  of  the  positive  degree  denote  ? 
Of  the  comparative  degree  ?     Of  the  superlative  degree  ? 

5.  How  is  the  comparative  degree  of  most  monosyl- 
lables formed  ?     Give  three  illustrations. 

6.  How  is  the  comparative  degree  of  most  adjectives  of 
more  than  one  syllable  formed  ?     Give  three  illustrations. 

7.  How  is  the  superlative  degree  of  most  adjectives  of 
one  syllable  formed.     Give  three  illustrations. 

8.  How  is  the  superlative  degree  of  most  adjectives  of 
more  than  one  syllable  formed  ?     Give  three  illustrations. 

9.  Why  is  it  incorrect  to  use  the  superlative  degree  in 
comparing  two  objects  ? 

10.  What  is   an  interrogative    adjective?     How   many 
interrogative  adjectives  are  there  ? 


EXERCISE    IV. 

Verbs. — Verb-Phrases. 

A  verb  is  a  word  that  is  used  to  assert  something  of  a 
person  or  a  thing. 

Verbs  may  be  classified  as  complete  or  incomplete. 

A  complete  verb  is  one  that  does  not  require  a  comple- 
ment to  complete  the  predicate ;  as,  1.  The  old  house 
stood  by  the  lindens.     2.  He  walked  home  in  haste. 

An  incomplete  verb  is  one  that  requires  a  complement 
to  complete  the  predicate  ;  as,  1.  He  teaches  arithmetic.  2. 
He  seems  very  happy.  3.  Cortez  was  a  Spaniard.  Verbs 
of  incomplete  predication  must  be  followed  by  a  noun- 
term  or  an  adjective-term  to  make  complete  predicates. 
Incomplete  verbs  are  transitive  or  copulative. 

Verbs  may  also  be  divided  into  transitive,  intransitive, 
copulative,  regular,  irregular,  and  auxiliary  verbs. 

A  transitive  verb  is  one  that,  in  the  active  voice,  re- 
quires an  object  to  complete  the  predicate;  as,  1.  Colum- 
bus believed  that  the  earth  is  round.  2.  Mary  wishes  to 
study  Latin.     3.  He  said,  "  I  will  be  there." 

An  intransitive  verb  is  one  that  does  not  require  an 
object  to  complete  the  predicate ;  as,  1.  He  walked  to  the 
city.  2.  The  moonbeams  glistened  on  the  snow.  3.  Our 
deeds  live  after  us. 

40 


VERBS.  41 

A  copulative  verb  is  one  that  requires  a  complement 
that  describes  the  subject;  as,  1.  The  orange  is  delicious. 
2.  The  air  feels  balmy.     3.  John  appears  angry. 

A  copulative  verb  joins  together,  in  logical  union,  the 
subject  and  the  predicate  of  a  proposition.  It  merely 
asserts  something  of  some  person  or  thing. 

A  regular  verb  is  one  which  forms  its  past  tense  and 
past  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present  tense-form ; 
as,  love,  loved,  loved;  return,  returned,  returned. 

NOTE.— Regular  verbs  are  also  called  weak 
verbs,  because  they  always  add  d  or  ed  (in  a  few 
cases  d  has  been  changed  to  t )  to  the  present  tense 
to  form  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle. 

An  irregular  verb  is  one  that  does  not  form  its  past 
tense  and  past  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present 
tense-form  ;  as,  fall,  fell,  fallen ;  write,  wrote,  written. 

NOTE. — Irregular  verbs  are  also  called  strong 
verbs,  because  they  always  change  the  vowel  of  the 
present  tense  to  form  the  past  tense  and  past  parti- 
ciple, but  do  not  add  an  ending. 

An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  that  is  employed  in  the  conju- 
gation of  other  verbs ;  as,  will,  in  will  go ;  have,  in  have 
loved;  may,  in  may  love. 

Defective,  Redundant,  Impersonal,  and  Attributive 

Verbs. 

NOTE. — I.  A  defective  verb  is  one  in  which  some 
of  the  parts  are  wanting;  as,  may,  might;  shall,  should; 
will,  would. 

n.  A  redundant  verb  is  one  which  presents 
double  forms  of  the  past  tense,  or  past  participle,  or 
both  ;  as,  sang,  sung ;  got,  gotten;  bid,  bade,  bidden,  bid. 


42  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

HI.  An  impersonal  verb  asserts  action  or  state 
independently  of  any  particular  subject ;  as,  it  rains ; 
it  thunders  ;  it  seems  ;  it  follows.  The  subject  of  an  imper- 
sonal verb  is  always  in  the  third  person  singular. 

IV.  An  attributive  verb  is  a  verb  that  asserts  an 
attribute  of  its  subject;  as,  the  sun  shines.  In  this 
sentence  the  attributive  verb  shines  asserts  the  attri- 
bute shining  of  the  subject,  the  sun. 

V.  Words  that  are  usually  other  parts  of  speech 
may  do  the  work  of  a  verb.  Thus,  man  is  a  verb  in 
the  sentence,  "  Man  the  boat."  Up,  usually  a  prepo- 
sition, is  a  verb  in  the  sentence,  "  Up  with  the  flag." 
Black,  usually  an  adjective,  is  a  verb  in  the  sentence, 
11  Black  your  shoes."  While,  usually  an  adverb,  is  a 
verb  in  the  sentence,  "  While  away  the  time." 

VI.  Sometimes  a  preposition  or  an  adverb  forms 
a  part  of  the  verb-term ;  as,  burn  up ;  stand  out ;  make 
up;  account  for;  laugh  at. 

VTL  Transitive  and  copulative  verbs  are  incom- 
plete verbs ;  active,  intransitive  verbs,  complete. 

Vm.  The  auxiliary  verbs  have,  has,  and  will  are 
incomplete  verbs  when  used  alone  as  verb-terms; 
as,  I  have  a  horse.    He  has  money.    I  willed  it. 

IX.  The  verb  to  be  is  a  complete  verb :  (1)  when 
used  after  the  expletive  "  There,"  as,  There  is  not  a 
perfect  man;  (2)  when  standing  at  the  end  of  a 
proposition,  as,  We  must  believe  that  he  is.  It  is 
the  only  pure  copula  verb.  A  few  other  verbs  are 
used  as  copulative  verbs. 

Verb- Phrases. 

NOTE.— It  is  important  that  the  pupil  should 
acquire  clear  ideas  of  the  structure  and  work 
done  by  verb-phrases.  He  should  be  required  to 
use  them  in  original  sentences,  also,  to  point  out  and 
name  the  parts  of  which  each  phrase  is  composed. 

A  verb-phrase  is  a  phrase  that  does  the  work  of  a  verb ; 
as,  1.  I  am  studying.     2.  I  do  work.     3.  He  may  go.     4.  If 


VERBS.  43 

you  would  help  me,  I  would  be  obliged.     5.  I  have  sent  for 
him.     6.  The  boy  has  been  rewarded. 

An  examination  of  the  foregoing  illustrative  verb-phrases 
shows  that  a  verb-phrase  is  composed  of  a  principal  verb 
and  an  auxiliary  verb  or  a  verb  used  as  an  auxiliary. 

Verb-phrases  may  be  divided  into  four  principal  classes, 
— progressive  verb-phrases,  emphatic  verb-phrases,  potential 
verb-phrases,  and  conditional  verb-phrases. 

A  progressive  verb-phrase  is  one  composed  of  an  in- 
complete participle  and  a  tense  of  the  auxiliary  be;  as,  1.  I 
am  working.     2.  I  am  thinking.     3.  We  are  copying. 

An  emphatic  verb-phrase  is  one  composed  of  the  pres- 
ent or  the  past  tense  of  the  auxiliary  do  and  the  root  infini- 
tive of  a  principal  verb  ;  as,  1.  I  do  work.     2.  I  did  work. 

A  potential  verb-phrase  is  one  composed  of  one  of  the 
auxiliaries  may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  or  should, 
and  the  root  infinitive  of  a  principal  verb;  as,  1.  He  may 
go.  2.  She  can  go.  3.  John  must  walk.  4.  Mary  could  go. 
These  phrases  denote  potentiality. 

A  conditional  verb-phrase  is  one  used  in  making  a 
conditional  statement;  as,  1.  If  he  should  send  for  me,  I 
would  go.     2.  If  you  would  help  me,  I  should  be  obliged. 

NOTE. — Must,  should,  and  ought  are  used  in  obliga- 
tive  phrases.  That  is,  in  phrases  that  are  used  to 
express  obligation  or  necessity. 

An  active  verb-phrase  is  one  in  which  the  subject  is 
the  actor;  as,  1.  John  has  solved  the  problem.  2.  The 
servant  has  completed  the  task. 


44 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


A  passive  verb-phrase  is  one  in  which  the  subject  is 
the  receiver  of  the  action;  as,  1.  John  has  been  punished. 
2.  The  lamp  was  lighted  by  the  servant. 

List  of  Irregular  Verbs.* 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  The  list  of  irregular  verbs 
is  given  that  it  may  be  referred  to  when  necessary. 
It  is  not  intended  that  the  list  should  be  learned  by 
rote.  Pupils  know  the  past  tense  and  past  parti- 
ciple of  most  verbs  before  they  begin  the  study  of 
grammar.  Pupils  should  be  questioned  on  the  list 
and  required  to  give  the  principal  parts  of  the  verbs 
that  are  most  frequently  misused. 


Pres.           Past. 

Past  P. 

Pres. 

Past. 

Past  P. 

Abide       abode 

abode 

Bind 

bound 

bound 

Am,  be    was 

been 

Bite 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

Arise        arose 

arisen 

Bleed 

bled 

bled 

Awake      awoke,  r 

.     awaked 

Bless 

blest,  r. 

blest,  r. 

Bake         baked 

Bear      \  bore> 
(  bare 

f  baked, 
I  baken 

[•  born 

Blow 
Break 

Breed 

blew 
f  broke, 
I  brake 

bred 

blown 
[■  broken 

bred 

Bear      J bore' 
(  bare 

\  borne 

Bring 
Build 

brought 
built,  r. 

brought 
built,  r. 

(to  carry) 

Burn 

burnt,  r. 

burnt,  r. 

Beat         beat 

f  beaten, 
I  beat 

Burst 
Buy 

burst 
bought 

burst 
bought 

Begin       began 

begun 

Can 

could 

Bend        bent,  r. 

bent,  r. 

Cast 

cast 

cast 

Bereave   bereft,  r. 

bereft,  r. 

Catch 

caught 

caught 

Beseech   besought 

besought 

Chide 

chid 

J  chidden, 
I  chid 

Bet           bet,  r. 

bet,  r. 

Bid           bid,  bade 

bidden,  bid 

Choose 

chose 

chosen 

*  Those  marked  r  are  also  used  as  regular  verbs. 


VERBS. 


45 


Pres. 

Past. 

Past  P. 

Pres. 

Past. 

Past  P. 

Cleave  < 

■  clove,  r. 
cleft, 

1  cloven, 
J  cleft 

Gird 
Give 

girt,  R. 
gave 

girt,  r. 
given 

.  clave 

Go 

went 

gone 

(to  split) 

Grave 

grave 

graven,  r. 

Cling 

clung 

clung 

Grind 

ground 

ground 

Clothe 

clad,  r. 

clad,  r. 

Grow 

grew 

grown 

Come 

came 

come 

Hang 

hung,  r. 

hung 

Cost 

cost 

cost 

Have 

had 

had 

Creep 

crept 

crept 

Hear 

heard 

heard 

Crow 

crew,  r. 

crowed 

Heave 

hove,  r. 

hove,  r. 

Cut 

cut 

cut 

Hew 

hewed 

hewn,  r. 

Dare 

durst,  r. 

dared 

Hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

Deal 

dealt 

dealt,  r. 

Hit 

hit 

hit 

Dig 
Do 

dug,  R. 
did 

dug,  R. 
done 

Hold 

held 

f  held, 
I  holden 

Draw 

drew 

drawn 

Hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

Dream 

dreamt,  f 

t.   dreamt,  r. 

Keep 

kept 

kept 

Dress 

drest,  r. 

drest,  r. 

Kneel 

knelt,  r. 

knelt,  r. 

l~)rink 

drank 

(  drank, 
(.  drunk 

Knit 

knit,  r. 

knit,  r. 

i~J  l  1  1  i  IV 

UI  *l  1  i  IV 

Know 

knew 

known 

Drive 

drove 

driven 

Lade 

laded 

laden,  r. 

Dwell 

dwelt,  r. 

dwelt,  r. 

Lay 

laid 

laid 

Eat 

ate 

eaten 

Lead 

led 

led 

Fall 

fell 

fallen 

Lean 

leant,  r. 

leant,  r. 

Feed 

fed 

fed 

Leap 

leapt,  r. 

leapt,  r. 

Feel 

felt 

felt 

Leave 

left 

left 

Fight 

fought 

fought 

Lend 

lent 

lent 

Find 

found 

found 

Let 

let 

let 

Flee 

fled 

fled 

Lie 

lay 

lain 

Fling 

flung 

flung 

(recline) 

Fly 

flew 

flown 

Light 

lit,  r. 

lit,  r. 

Forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

Lose 

lost 

lost 

Freeze 

froze 

frozen 

Make 

made 

made 

Get 

got 

got,  gotten 

May 

might 

Gild 

gilt,  r. 

gilt,  r. 

Mean 

meant 

meant 

46 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


Pres. 

Past. 

Past  P. 

Pres. 

Past. 

Past  P. 

Meet 

met 

met 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Mow 

mowed 

mown,  r. 

Shrink 

f  shrunk, 
( shrank 

f  shrunk, 
( shrunken 

Pay 

paid 

paid 

*-  -'  X  i.  1  111  IV 

Pen 

pent,  r. 

pent,  r. 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

{to  inclose) 
Put           put 

put 

Sing 

f  sang, 
(  sung 

|  sung 

Quit 

quit,  r. 

quit,  r. 

Sink 

(  sank, 
I  sunk 

[■  sunk 

Rap 

rapt,  r. 

rapt,  r. 

Read 

read 

read 

Sit 

sat 

sat 

Rend 

rent 

rent 

Slay 

slew 

slain 

Rid 

rid 

rid 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Ride 
Ring 

rode 
f  rang, 
1  rung 

ridden 
[rung 

Slide 
Sling 

slid 
slung 

f  slidden, 
(slid 
slung 

Rise 

rose 

risen 

Slink 

slunk 

slunk 

Rive 

rived 

riven,  r. 

Slit 

slit 

slit,  R. 

Run 

Saw 

ran 
sawed 

run 
sawn,  r. 

Smite 

smote 

f  smitten, 
I  smit 

Say 

said 

said 

Sow 

sowed 

sown,  r. 

See 
Seek 

saw 
sought 

seen 
sought 

Speak 

f  spoke, 
I  spake 

[■  spoken 

Seethe 

seethed 

sodden,  r. 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

Sell 

sold 

sold 

Spend 

spent 

spent 

Send 

sent 

sent 

Spill 

spilt,  R. 

spilt,  R. 

Set 
Shake 

set 
shook 

set 
shaken 

Spin 

( spun, 
i  span 

[  spun 

Shall 
Shape 

should 
shaped 

shapen,  r. 

Spit 

f  spit, 
1  spat 

[  spit 

Shave 

shaved 

shaven,  r. 

Split 

split 

split 

Shear 

sheared 

shorn,  r. 

Spread 

spread 

spread 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Spring 

sprang 

sprung 

Shine 

shone,  r. 

shone,  r. 

Stand 

stood 

stood 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Stave 

f  staved, 
I  stove 

)  staved, 
J  stove 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

kJLCL  V  \J 

Show 

showed 

shown,  r. 

Steal 

stole 

stolen 

VERBS. 


47 


Pres. 

Past. 

Past  P. 

Pres. 

Past. 

Past  P. 

Stay 

f  staid, 
1  stayed 

1  staid, 
)  stayed 

Teach 

taught 

taught 

Tell 

told 

told 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

Think 

thought 

thought 

Sting 
Stride 

stung 
strode 

stung 
stridden 

Thrive 

f  thrived, 
(  throve 

[■  thriven,  r. 

Strike 

struck 

f  struck, 
(  stricken 

Throw 
Thrust 

threw 
thrust 

thrown 
thrust 

String 
Strive 

strung 
strove 

strung 
striven 

Tread 

trod 

f  trodden, 
1  trod 

Strew 

strewed 

strown,  r. 

Wax 

waxed 

waxen,  r. 

Swear 

|  swore, 
(  sware 

[•  sworn 

Wear 
Weave 

wore 
wove 

worn 
woven 

Sweat 

sweat 

sweat,  r. 

Weep 

wept 

wept 

Sweep 

swept 

swept 

Wet 

wet,  r. 

wet,  r. 

Swell 

swelled 

swollen,  r. 

Whet 

whet,  r. 

whet,  r. 

Swim 

f  swam, 
1  swum 

[■  swum 

Will 
Win 

would 
won 

won 

Swing 

swung 

swung 

Wind 

wound,  r.    wound 

Take 

took 

taken 

Work 

wrought, 

r.  wrought,  r 

Tear 

|  tore, 
I  tare 

[•  torn 

Wring 

wrung 

wrung 

Write 

wrote 

written 

Test  Questions. — Sentence-Making. 

TO  THE  TEACHER:  Recitation  without  ample 
illustration  and  application  by  the  pupil  is  a  school- 
room farce.  A  pupil  may  perfectly  recite  the  text 
of  his  lesson,  yet  not  know  the  lesson.  In  some 
schools  pupils  learn  much  they  never  know.  The 
method  of  the  author  and  of  the  teacher  should 
compel  the  pupil  to  be  more  than  a  passive  receiver 
of  instruction ;  it  should  compel  him  to  be  an  active 
doer.  Mere  learning  is  not  culture;  it  is  only  the 
crude  material  which  the  mind  uses  in  acquiring 
culture.  Sentence-making  reviews  similar  to  the 
illustrations  given  require  definite  thinking  on  the 


48  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

part  of  the  pupil  and  exact  teaching  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher.  The  pupil  must  concentrate  his  atten- 
tion and  the  teacher  must  know  the  structure  of 
the  sentence.  If  the  memorization  and  recitation  of 
grammatical  facts  and  rules  are  helpful  to  the  pupil 
in  the  grades,  sentence-making  exercise  "which  re- 
quires him  to  use  the  facts  and  rules  in  original  sen- 
tences is  surely  more  helpful.  The  pupil  can  master 
the  structure  of  sentences  only  by  constructing 
sentences.  There  is  only  one  "way  to  learn  to  ex- 
press thought  correctly  and  concisely, — that  is,  by 
the  reflective  use  of  words  in  composition. 

I  am  prepared  to  state  that  pupils  in  the  gram- 
mar grades  like  sentence-making  exercises.  This 
method  of  fixing  the  relations  of  grammatical  ele~ 
ments  is  not  an  untried  theory  of  a  college  profes- 
sor who  has  never  taught  English  grammar,  but  an 
experience  of  your  humble  servant.  For  years  I 
used  it  in  my  work  as  teacher ;  for  years  I  used  it  as 
superintendent  of  schools. 

1.  What  is  a  verb  ?     What  is  a  verb-term  ? 

2.  Into  how  many  classes  may  verbs  be  divided  ? 

3.  In  what  important  respect  does  an  incomplete  verb 
differ  from  a  complete  verb  ?  In  the  first  of  two  sentences, 
use  an  incomplete  verb  :  in  the  second,  a  complete  verb. 

4.  In  what  important  respect  does  a  transitive  verb 
differ  from  a  copulative  verb  ? 

5.  Why  are  transitive  and  copulative  verbs  incomplete 
verbs  ? 

6.  Why  are  active,  intransitive  verbs  complete  verbs  ? 

7.  In  what  important  respect  does  an  active  intransitive 
verb  differ  from  an  active  transitive  verb  ? 

8.  Show  that  a  verb  may  be  transitive  in  one  sentence 
and  intransitive  in  another  sentence  ? 

9.  Why  is  is  sometimes  called  a  complete  verb  ? 


VERBS.  49 

10.  Give  examples  in  which  is  is  used  (1)  as  an  incomplete 
verb  ;   (2)  in  which  it  is  used  as  a  complete  verb. 

11.  Complete  the  meaning  of  a  different  transitive  verb: 
(1)  with  a  noun,  word-form  ;  (2)  with  a  noun,  phrase-form  ; 
(3)  with  a  noun,  clause-form. 

12.  Complete  the  meaning  of  a  different  copulative  verb  : 
(1)  with  a  noun,  word-form  ;  (2)  with  a  noun,  phrase-form  ; 
(3)  with  a  noun,  clause-form. 

13.  Complete  the  meaning  of  the  same  copulative  verb: 
(1)  with  an  adjective,  word-form ;  (2)  with  an  adjective, 
phrase-form. 

14.  What  is  a  progressive  verb-phrase?  In  each  of 
three  sentences,  use  a  progressive  verb-phrase  and  point 
out  its  parts. 

15.  What  is  an  emphatic  verb-phrase?  In  each  of  three 
sentences,  use  an  emphatic  verb-phrase. 

16.  What  is  a  potential  verb-phrase  ?  In  two  sentences, 
use  a  potential  verb-phrase  and  point  out  its  parts. 

17.  What  is  a  conditional  verb-phrase?  In  each  of 
three  sentences,  use  a  conditional  verb-phrase,  and  tell 
why  it  is  a  conditional  phrase. 

18.  What  is  an  active  verb-phrase?  In  each  of  three 
sentences,  use  an  active  verb-phrase  and  tell  why  it  is 
called  active. 

19.  What  is  a  passive  verb-phrase?  Why  is  it  called 
passive  ?     Use  two  passive  verb-phrases. 

20.  Show  that  a  verb-phrase  in  the  passive  voice  is  the 
equivalent  of  a  copula  verb  and  its  complement. 

For  directions  and  models  for  parsing  verbs  and  verb- 
phrases,  see  the  next  Exercise. 


EXERCISE  V. 
Mode,  Tense,  Voice,  Conjugation. 

Mode. 

Mode  is  the  form  of  the  verb  that  indicates  the  manner 
of  the  assertion. 

There  are  three  modes, — the  indicative,  the  imperative, 
and  the  subjunctive. 

The  indicative  mode  expresses  being,  action,  or  state  as 
a  fact ;  as,  I  am.     Gold  glitters.     He  will  come. 

The  imperative  mode  expresses  being,  action,  or  state 
as  willed  or  desired ;  as,  Hear  me  for  my  cause.  Give  us 
this  day  our  daily  bread. 

The  subjunctive  mode  is  used  in  subordinate  clauses 
to  express  a  future  contingency,  a  supposition  contrary  to 
fact,  or  a  wish ;  as,  If  I  were  you,  I  would  go.  If  God 
send  thee  a  cross,  take  it  up  willingly. 

NOTE.— The  subjunctive  has  very  nearly  gone 
out  of  use  in  modern  English.  This  is  true  espe- 
cially of  its  preterit  tense.  No  verb  except  be  has 
8  preterit  subjunctive  that  differs  from  the  indica- 
tive. In  place  of  the  subjunctive  we  use  either  the 
indicative  or  some  of  the  verb-phrases. — Whitney. 

Tense. 

Tense  is  the  form  of  the  verb  that  indicates  the  time  of 
the  act  or  state  and  the  degree  of  completeness. 

60 


TENSE.  51 

There  are  six  tenses, — the  present,  the  past,  the  future, 
the  present-perfect,  the  past-perfect,  the  future-perfect. 

The  present  tense  of  a  verb  expresses  being,  action,  or 
state  in  present  time  ;  as,  I  am.     You  study.     He  sleeps. 

The  past  tense  of  a  verb  expresses  being,  action,  or 
state  in  past  time  ;  as,  I  was.     You  studied.     He  slept. 

The  future  tense  of  a  verb  expresses  being,  action,  or 
state  in  future  time  ;  as,  I  shall  or  will  be.  You  shall  or  icill 
study.     He  shall  or  will  sleep. 

The  present-perfect  tense  of  a  verb  expresses  being, 
action,  or  state  as  completed  at  the  present  time ;  as,  I 
have  been.     You  have  studied.     He  has  slept. 

The  past-perfect  tense  of  a  verb  expresses  being,  action, 
or  state  as  completed  at  or  before  some  past  time  ;  as,  I 
had  been.     You  had  studied.     He  had  slept. 

The  future-perfect  tense  of  a  verb  expresses  being, 
action,  or  state  that  will  have  been  completed  at  or  before 
some  future  time ;  as,  I  shall  have  been.  You  will  have 
studied.     He  will  have  slept. 

The  indicative  mode  has  six  tenses, — the  present,  the 
present-perfect,  the  past,  the  past-perfect,  the  future,  the 
future-perfect. 

The  imperative  mode  has  one  tense, — the  present. 

The  subjunctive  mode  has  separate  forms  in  but  two 
tenses, — the  present  and  the  past. 

NOTES.— I.  The  indicative  mode  is  used:  (1)  to 
state  facts;  (2)  to  ask  questions;  (3)  to  express  a 
supposition  in  which  the  conditions  are  dealt  with 
as  if  they  were  facts. 


52  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

n.  The  imperative  mode  is  used  only  in  the  sec- 
ond person,  singular  or  plural. 

in.  The  subjunctive  mode  is  almost  obsolete.  It 
has  been  supplanted  by  the  indicative. 


Voice. 

Voice  is  that  form  of  a  transitive  verb  which  shows 
whether  the  subject  acts  or  is  acted  upon. 

Transitive  verbs  have  two  forms  to  express  voice, — the 
active  and  the  passive. 

Verbs  are  in  the  active  voice  when  they  represent  the 
subject  as  acting;  as,  John  struck  William.  James  read 
the  book. 

Verbs  are  in  the  passive  voice  when  they  represent  the 
subject  as  being  acted  upon ;  as,  William  was  struck  by 
John.     The  book  was  read  by  James. 

Annex  an  object,  and  change  the  following  transitive  verbs 
from  the  active  to  the  passive  voice  : 

Mary  loved.  They  read.  Henry  lost.  The  children  played. 
Augustus  threw.  Anna  found.  He  rowed.  Hear.  The  father 
punished.     Jane  broke.     Give.     Will  you  lend  ? 

Change  the  following  transitive  verbs  from  the  passive  to  the 
active  form,  and  supply  a  subject  when  it  is  omitted: 

America  was  discovered  in  1492.  Religious  liberty  was  estab- 
lished in  Rhode  Island.  Magna  Charta  was  granted  to  the  English. 
The  Mexicans  were  defeated  at  Buena  Vista.  The  king  was  con- 
cealed in  the  tree.  The  retreat  of  the  Greeks  was  conducted  very 
skilfully.  A  great  battle  was  fought  at  Marathon.  The  Gunpowder 
Plot  was  discovered.  King  Charles  was  restored  to  the  throne  in 
1660.  "Paradise  Lost"  was  written  by  Milton.  "  The  Messiah" 
was  written  by  a  distinguished  poet. 


CONJUGATION. 


53 


Conjugation. 

The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  arrangement  of 
its  several  modes,  tenses,  voices,  numbers,  and  persons. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are  the  root  infinitive  (the 
present  indicative),  the  past  tense  (the  past  indicative),  and 
the  past  participle. 

A  verb  takes  its  number  and  person  from  its  subject. 
The  form  of  the  verb,  however,  does  not  always  depend  on 
the  person  and  number  of  its  subject. 

Conjugation  of  the  Verb  Be. 


PRESENT. 

PAST.             PRES.     PART.          PAST    PART 

Principal  Parts  :              Be, 

Was,             Being,              Been. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

PAST    TENSE. 

Singular.                   Plural. 

Singular.                   Plural. 

1.   I  am.                  1.  We  are. 

1.   I  was.                1.  We  were. 

2.  You  are.            2.   You  are. 

2.   You  were.        2.   You  were. 

3.   He  is.                 3.   They  are. 

3.   He  was.            3.  They  were 

PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 


1.  I  have  been. 

2.  You  have  been. 

3.  He  has  been. 


1.  We  have  been. 

2.  You  have  been. 

3.  They  have  been. 


PAST    PERFECT    TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.  I  had  been. 

2.  You  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been. 


Plural. 

1.  We  had  been. 

2.  You  had  been. 

3.  They  had  been. 


LISH    GRAMMAR. 

/furor/. 
1.  I  shall  be.  1.  We  shall  be. 

3     I   j  will  be.  2.   Y; 

Be  will  be.  Thev  will  be. 


Singular. 

.all  have  been.  1.  We  shall  have  been. 

.     Ton  will  have  been.  I     I  u  will  have  been. 

r  been. 


SCBJUAC 
enerally  used  that,  though.) 

PRESEST    HUBS  BB5K. 

•>  Pfural.  Singular.  Plural. 

1.   I  be.  1.  We  be.  1.  I  1.  We  were. 

.     ':    a  be.  .  .     Y  ?u  were.  .     Y  mi  were. 

3.    H     :  -  ere. 

IMPERATIVE    MOr 

PfuraL 
.     Be  (thou). 

INFOimVES 

~  -:>:-.-  To 

.r--     -  -: :  ;-':  -  have  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Prt&nt.     Being.  ?-_ 

r.     Having  been. 


CONJUGATION. 


55 


Conjugation  of  the  Verb  Give. 

Root,  give.  Principal  parts,  give,  gave,  given. 


INDICATIVE   MODE. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  give.  1.  We  give. 

2.  You  give.  2.  You  give. 

3.  He  gives.  3.  They  give. 


PAST  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  gave.  1.  We  gave. 

2.  You  gave.         2.  You  gave. 

3.  He  gave.  3.  They  gave. 


PRESENT  PERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  given.  1.   We  have  given. 

2.  You  have  given.  2.  You  have  given. 

3.  He  has  given.  3.   They  have  given. 


PAST    PERFECT    TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.  I  had  given. 

2.  You  had  given. 

3.  He  had  given. 


Plural. 

1.  We  had  given. 

2.  You  had  given. 

3.  They  had  given. 


FUTURE    TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.  I  shall  give. 

2.  You  will  give. 

3.  He  will  give. 


Plural. 

1.  We  shall  give. 

2.  You  will  give. 

3.  They  will  give. 


FUTURE    PERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  given.  1.  We  shall  have  given. 

2.  You  will  have  given.  2.  You  will  have  given. 

3.  He  will  have  given.  3.  They  will  have  given. 


56 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 
(Generally  used  after  if,  though.) 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  give.  1.   We  give. 

2.  You  give.  2.   You  give. 

3.  He  give.  3.  They  give. 


PAST    TENSE, 

Singular. 


1.  I  gave. 

2.  You  gave 

3.  He  gave. 


Plural. 

1.  We  gave. 

2.  You  gave. 

3.  They  gave. 


IMPERATIVE   MODE. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 


Singular 
2.  Give. 


Plural. 
2.   Give  you. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present.  To  give. 

Present  Perfect.      To  have  given. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present.     Giving.  Past.     Given. 

Perfect.     Having  given. 

The  synopsis  of  a  verb  is  a  short  view  of  it,  showing 
its  forms  through  the  modes  and  tenses  in  a  single  number 
and  person. 

Following  is  a  synopsis  of  the  verb  be  in  the  second 
person,  singular : 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 


Present  Tense. 
Present  Perfect  Tense. 
Past  Tense. 
Past  Perfect  Tense. 
Future  Tense. 
Future  Perfect  Tense. 


You  were. 

You  have  been. 

You  were. 

You  had  been. 

You  will  be. 

You  will  have  been. 


CONJUGATION.  57 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 

Present  Tense.  If  you  be. 

Past  Tense.  If  you  have  been. 

IMPERATIVE   MODE. 

Present  Tense.  Be  thou. 

Synopsis  of  the  verb  eat  in  the  first  person  singular : 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

Present  Tense.  I  eat. 

Present  Perfect  Tense.  I  have  eaten. 

Past  Tense.  I  ate. 

Past  Perfect  Tense.  I  had  eaten. 

Future  Tense.  I  shall  eat. 

Future  Perfect  Tense.  I  shall  have  eaten. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 

Present  Tense.  If  I  eat. 

Past  Tense.  If  I  ate. 

Interrogative  and  Negative  Forms. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively  in  the  indicative 
mode  by  placing  the  subject  after  it,  or  after  the  first  aux- 
iliary ;  as,  Do  I  love  ?  Have  I  loved  ?  Did  I  love  ?  Had  I 
loved  ?     Shall  I  love  ?     Shall  I  have  loved  ? 

A  verb  is  conjugated  negatively  by  placing  the  adverb  not 
after  it,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary ;  as,  I  love  not,  or  I  do 
not  love.  I  have  not  loved.  I  love  not,  or  I  did  not  love. 
I  had  not  loved,  etc.  Inf.,  Not  to  love.  Not  to  have  loved. 
Part.,  Not  loving.     Not  having  loved. 

Give  a  synopsis  of  each  of  the  following  verbs  in  the 
first,  the  second,  and  the  third  person  :  Believe,  defy,  think. 


58  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Progressive  and  Emphatic  Forms. 

The  progressive  form  is  the  verb  be  joined  to  the  present 
participle.  The  passive  form  is  the  verb  be  joined  to  the 
passive  participle;  as,  I  am  reading;  I  teas  reading;  I  am 
pleased;  I  was  pleased. 

The  emphatic  form  is  found  only  in  the  indicative  and 
the  imperative  mode.  The  auxiliary  do  is  added  to  the 
simple  verb  for  the  present  and  did  for  the  past ;  as,  I  do 
love  ;  I  did  love. 

Give  a  synopsis  of  write,  lend,  and  play  in  the  second 
and  the  third  person,  singular  and  plural. 

TO  TEACHER  AND  PUPIL:  The  only  tenses 
■which  change  their  termination  are  the  present  and 
the  past ;  as,  sit,  sits,  sat ;  tarry,  tarries,  tarried.  All 
other  changes  are  made  by  means  of  auxiliaries. 
That  is,  an  inspection  of  the  conjugation  of  a  verb 
shows  that  our  language  is  almost  inflectionless. 

Parsing. 

In  parsing  a  verb  tell : 

1.  Whether  it  is  complete  or  incomplete  (if  incomplete, 

whether  it  is  transitive  or  copulative),  regular,  or 
irregular  (if  irregular,  give  its  principal  parts). 

2.  Mode,  Tense,  Voice,  Person,  Number,  and  Agree- 

ment with  its  subject. 

In  parsing  a  verb-phrase  tell : 

1.  The  exact  kind, —  whether  it  is  active,  passive,  pro- 

gressive, emphatic,  or  potential. 

2.  The  parts  of  which  it  is  composed, — auxiliary  and 

principal  verb  or  participle. 

3.  Inflection  of  tense. 

4.  Agreement  with  its  subject. 


PARSING.  59 

NOTES.— I.  A  verb-phrase  should  be  parsed  as  a 
unit.  It  does  the  work  of  a  verb.  The  mind  grasps 
it  as  an  entirety.  Nothing  is  gained  by  parsing  its 
part  separatively. 

n.  The  auxiliary  or  assertive  part  of  a  word- 
phrase  includes  all  the  phrase,  except  the  last  word, 
which  expresses  the  attribute  of  the  subject. 

Parse  the  verbs  and  verb-phrases  in  the   following  sen- 
tences : 

1.  The  boy  walks  rapidly. 

MODEL.—  Walk*  is  a  complete  verb,  regular,  in- 
dicative mode,  present  tense ;  third  person,  singular 
number,  to  agree  with  its  subject  boy. 

2.  He  was  considered  upright,  yet  he  did  many  things  that  were 
condemned. 

MODEL.— Did  is  an  incomplete  verb,  transitive, 
irregular ;  principal  parts,  do,  did,  done;  active  voice, 
indicative  mode,  past  tense  ;  third  person,  singular 
number,  to  agree  with  its  subject  he. 

3.  The  book  may  have  been  written  by  one  who  is  living  in  the 
city  of  Philadelphia. 

MODEL. — May  have  been  written  is  a  passive,  poten- 
tial verb-phrase,  composed  of  the  auxiliary  may  have 
been  and  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  write;  prin- 
cipal parts,  write,  wrote,  written ;  present-perfect  tense ; 
third  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  sub- 
ject book. 

Is  living  is  a  progressive  verb-phrase  composed 
of  the  auxiliary  is  and  the  present  participle  of  the 
verb  live,  present  tense ;  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, to  agree  with  its  subject  who. 

NOTE. — The  foregoing  models  are  from  the 
author's  "Lessons  in  Grammar,"  pages  65,  66. 


60  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Parse  the  verbs  and  the  verb-phrases  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  The  child  believes  you. 

2.  She  worked  faithfully. 

3.  The  master  struck  his  pupil. 

4.  The  boat  struck  on  a  reef. 

5.  He  walked  to  town. 

6.  She  seems  happy. 

7.  My  friend  is  a  musician. 

8.  He  was  disappointed. 

9.  The  air  feels  balmy. 

10.  He  might  have  been  happy. 

11.  John  wishes  to  study  Latin. 

12.  Anthracite  coal  burns  slowly. 

13.  He  burned  his  hand. 

14.  He  ought  to  do  better. 

15.  I  am  reading. 

16.  I  do  read  every  evening. 

17.  He  did  work. 

18.  I  could  have  gone. 

19.  If  he  sends  for  me,  I  shall  go. 

20.  If  they  should  send  for  me,  I  would  go. 

21.  I  sent  him  home. 

22.  He  was  sent  home. 

23.  The  servant  has  lighted  the  lamp. 

24.  The  boy  was  punished  by  his  father. 

25.  I  do  love. 

26.  He  did  love. 

27.  She  was  loved. 

28.  America  was  discovered  by  Columbus,, 

29.  Has  he  come  ? 

30.  She  can  play. 

31.  I  love  to  see  the  sun  shine. 

32.  Loving  is  living. 

33.  The  boys  rowed  the  boat. 


TEST-QUESTIONS.  61 

Parse  the  verbs  and  verb-phrases  in  the  following  quota- 
tions : 

I.  In  August,  even,  not  a  breeze  can  stir  but  it  thrills  us  with  the 
breath  of  autumn.  A  pensive  glory  is  seen  in  the  far,  golden  gleams 
among  the  shadows  of  the  trees. — Hawthorne. 

II.  Reproach  did  not  spare  Braddock  even  in  his  grave.  Still,  his 
dauntless  conduct  on  the  field  of  battle  shows  him  to  have  been  a 
man  of  fearless  spirit ;  and  he  was  universally  allowed  to  be  an 
accomplished  disciplinarian.  Whatever  may  have  been  his  faults 
and  errors,  he  expiated  them  by  the  hardest  lot  that  can  befall  a 
brave  soldier,  ambitious  of  renown, — an  unhonored  grave  in  a 
strange  land,  a  memory  clouded  by  misfortune,  and  a  name  forever 
coupled  with  defeat. — Irving. 

III.  The  Birthday  of  Washington. — The  birthday  of  the  "Father 
of  his  Country  !"  May  it  ever  be  freshly  remembered  by  American 
hearts  !  May  it  ever  reawaken  in  them  a  filial  veneration  for  his 
memory  ;  ever  rekindle  the  fires  of  patriotic  regard  to  the  country 
which  he  loved  so  well ;  to  which  he  gave  his  youthful  vigor  and  his 
youthful  energy  during  the  perilous  period  of  the  early  Indian  war- 
fare ;  to  which  he  devoted  his  life,  in  the  maturity  of  his  powers,  in 
the  field  ;  to  which  again  he  offered  the  counsels  of  his  wisdom  and 
his  experience  as  president  of  the  convention  that  framed  our  Consti- 
tution ;  which  he  guided  and  directed  while  in  the  chair  of  state,  and 
for  which  the  last  prayer  of  his  earthly  supplication  was  offered  up 
when  it  came  the  moment  for  him  so  well,  and  so  grandly,  and  so 
calmly  to  die  !  He  was  the  first  man  of  the  time  in  which  he  grew. 
His  memory  is  first  and  most  sacred  in  our  love  ;  and  ever  hereafter, 
till  the  last  drop  of  blood  shall  freeze  in  the  last  American  heart, 
his  name  shall  be  a  spell  of  power  and  might. — Rufus  Choate. 

Test-Questions. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  mode  as  used  in  grammar? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  tense  as  used  in  grammar  ? 


62  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.  When  is  a  verb  in  the  indicative  mode  ?     Give  two 
examples. 

4.  What  does  the  imperative  mode  express  ?    Illustrate. 

5.  When  is  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mode  ? 

6.  How  many  tenses  has  each  mode  ?     Name  them. 

7.  What  is  meant  by  the  word  voice  as  used  in  gram- 
mar ?    Illustrate. 

8.  What  kind  of  verbs  have  voice  ?     Give  two  illustra- 
tions of  what  is  meant  by  voice. 

9.  What  is  meant  by  the  word  conjugation  f 

10.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  synopsis  of  a  verb? 

11.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  principal  parts  of  a 
verb  f     Illustrate. 

1 2.  Give  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs  :  Ex- 
plain, rely,  write,  shine,  hurt,  feel,  go,  smell,  sit,  set,  lie,  lay, 
speak,  sail,  run,  eat,  see,  burn,  glaze,  try,  smile,  shut,  leave, 
buy,  alter. 

13.  In  what  important  respect  do  the  principal  parts  of 
an  irregular  verb  differ  from  the  principal  parts  of  a  regular 
verb  ?     Illustrate. 

14.  In  each  of  two  sentences,  use  a  verb,  first  in  the 
active,  then  in  the  passive  voice. 

15.  Give  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  of  teach, 
sing,  read,  write,  arise,  sit,  beat,  tell,  walk. 


EXERCISE  VI. 

Adverbs. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb. 

Adverbs  may  be  divided  into  four  general  classes, — 
adverbs  of  place,  of  time,  of  cause,  of  manner. 

Adverbs  of  place  answer  the  questions  where,  whither, 
whence.     Illustrate. 

Adverbs  of  time  answer  the  questions  when,  how  long, 
how  often.     Illustrate. 

Adverbs  of  cause  answer  the  questions  why,  wherefore, 
then.     Illustrate. 

Adverbs  of  manner  and  degree  answer  the  questions 
how,  how  much. 

Many  adverbs  have  comparison ;  as,  soon,  sooner,  soon- 
est ;  often,  oftener,  oftenest ;  brightly,  more  brightly,  most 
brightly. 

The  largest  class  of  adverbs  is  derived  from  adjectives  by 
adding  the  suffix  ly ;  as,  truly,  clearly,  hastily,  wholly, 
splendidly,  smoothly. 

There  is  used  as  an  expletive, — a  word  used  to  fill  a  va- 
cancy,— to  introduce  a  sentence  when  the  verb  to  be  denotes 
existence  ;  as,  There  were  giants  in  those  days.  There 
comes  a  time  when  we  must  die. 

63 


64  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Many  phrases  have  the  value  of  single  adverbs,  and  should 
be  treated  as  such ;  as,  by  stealth,  of  yore,  at  random,  at 
all,  at  once,  at  last,  at  least,  in  like  manner,  in  part,  in  short, 
in  vain,  in  general,  as  yet,  by  far,  of  old,  of  late,  ere  long, 
from  far,  on  high,  for  good. 

The  adverb  so  is  often  used  as  a  substitute  for  some  pre- 
ceding word  or  group  of  words  ;  as,  He  is  in  good  business, 
and  is  likely  to  remain  so. 

Some  adverbs  limit  no  particular  word  or  words  in  the 
sentence  ;  they  are  used  independently ;  as,  Why,  you  told 
me  so  yourself.     Well,  I  will  let  you  know  if  I  decide  to  go. 

Some  adverbs  throw  their  force  upon  statements,  thus 
showing  how  the  thought  is  conceived ;  as,  Certainly  I  be- 
lieve you.  Perhaps  it  is  true.  Undoubtedly  he  will  pay 
the  note.  Such  adverbs  are  called  adverbs  of  modality. 
Yes,  no,  not  are  classed  as  adverbs  of  modality. 

A  conjunctive  adverb  is  one  which  expresses  the  adverb- 
ial relation  of  a  dependent  clause  and  connects  it  with  the 
verb,  the  adjective,  or  the  adverb  which  it  modifies.  That 
is,  conjunctive  adverbs  modify  and  connect;  as,  1.  I  shall 
meet  my  friend  when  the  boat  arrives.  2.  Whither  I  go 
ye  cannot  come.  3.  It  is  uncertain  where  the  gypsies  origi- 
nated. In  1,  when  modifies  shall  meet  and  connects  the  two 
sentences.  In  2,  whither  modifies  go  and  connects  the  two 
sentences.  In  3,  where  modifies  the  adjective  uncertain 
and  connects  the  two  sentences. 

The  same  introductory  word  may  introduce  a  noun  clause, 
an  adjective  clause,  or  an  adverb  clause;  as,  1.  Where  he 
fell  is  uncertain.  2.  This  is  the  place  where  he  lived.  3.  He 
died  inhere  he  fell. 


ADVERBS.  65 

Correct  the  following  examples  (1)  with  reference  to 
choice  of  adverb  ;  (2)  with  reference  to  form  ;  (3)  with  refer- 
ence to  position. 

1.  Speak  slow  and  distinct. 

2.  You  have  behaved  very  bad. 

3.  This  pen  does  not  write  good. 

4.  At   this    place,    the    mountains    are     extraordinary    high    and 
remarkable  steep. 

5.  He  lived  an  extreme  hard  life. 

6.  An  abominable  ugly  little  woman  officiated  at  the  table. 

7.  The  fox  is  an  exceeding  artful  animal. 

8.  He  is  doing  fine. 

9.  People  say  he  is  independent  rich. 

10.  You  have  been  wrong  informed  on  the  subject. 

11.  She  dresses  suitable  to  her  station  and  means. 

12.  Agreeable  to  the  present  arrangement,   I  shall  have  to  recite 
my  Greek  during  the  first  hour. 

13.  The  insolent  proud  soon  acquire  enemies. 

14.  You  did  the  work  as  good  as  I  could  expect. 

15.  The  man  was  so  bruised  that  he  scarce  knew  himself. 

16.  As  like  as  not,  you  love  her  yourself. 

17.  I  can  easier  raise  a  crop  of  hemp  than  a  crop  of  tobacco. 

18.  Abstract  principles  are  easiest  learned  when  they  are  clearest 
illustrated. 

19.  A  wicked  man  is  not  happy,  though  he  be  never  so  hardened 
in  conscience. 

20.  Snow  seldom  or  ever  falls  in  the  southern  part  of  Texas. 

21.  Whether  you  are  willing  or    no,  you    certainly  will  have    to 
pay  the  debt. 

22.  Nothing  farther  was  said  about  the  matter. 

23.  It  rains  most  every  day. 

24.  This  wheat  stands  most  too  thick. 

25.  Who  brought  me  here,  will  also  take  me  from  hence. 

26.  We  remained  a  week  at  Galveston,  and  proceeded  from  thence 
to  Indianola. 

5 


66  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

27.  Such  cloaks  were  in  fashion  about  five  years  since. 

28.  It  is  impossible  continually  to  be  at  work. 

29.  I  am  some  better  than  I  was. 

30.  Every  man  cannot  afford  to  keep  a  coach. 

31.  All  their  neighbors  were  not  invited. 

32.  All  that  we  hear,  we  should  not  believe. 

33.  The  two  young  ladies  from  Chicago  came  to  the  party  nearly 
dressed  alike. 

34.  I  only  recited  one  lesson  during  the  whole  day. 

35.  He  is  only  so  when  he  is  drunk. 

36.  I  only  bought  the  horse,  and  not  the  buggy. 

37.  Such  prices  are  only  paid  in  times  of  great  scarcity. 

38.  The  interest  not  only  had  been  paid,  but  the  greater  part  of 
the  principal  also. 

39.  If  you  have   only   learned    to    spend    money   extravagantly   at 
college,  you  may  stay  at  home. 

40.  The  school  must    carefully  be    conducted  to    please    all    such 
patrons. 

41.  The  words  of  a  sentence  should  be  arranged  so  that  harmony 
may  be  promoted. 

42.  Nature  mixes  the  elements  variously  and  curiously  sometimes, 
it  is  true. 

43.  You  are  to  slowly  raise  the  trap,  while  I  hold  the  sack. 

44.  Having  almost  lost  a  thousand  dollars  by  the  speculation,  he 
was  able  only  to  pay  part  of  it  back. 

45.  We  do  those  things  frequently  which  we  repent  of  after  care- 
ful consideration. 

Adjective  or  Adverb,  which? 

The  quality  of  an  object  is  described  by  using  an  adjec- 
tive ;  the  manner  of  an  action,  by  using  an  adverb. 

Cross  out  the  improper  word  in  each  of  the  following  sen- 
tences, then  read  the  corrected  sentence  : 

1.  She  walks  (rapid)  (rapidly). 

2.  The  river  runs  (rapid)  (rapidly)  at  that  point. 


ADVERBS.  67 

3.  She  was  requested  to  walk  (slow)  (slowly). 

4.  She  appears  (charming)  (charmingly). 

5.  I  punished  him  (well)  (good). 

6.  In  the  spring  the  woods  look  (beautiful)  (beautifully). 

7.  The  velvet  feels  (smooth)  (smoothly). 

8.  I  feel  (bad)  (badly)  to-day. 

9.  She  looks  (angry)  angrily). 
10.  She  talks  (loud)  (loudly). 

Split  Infinitives. 

Do  not  place  an  adverb  between  the  parts  of  an  infinitive. 
Improve  the  following  sentences  : 

1 .  Will  you  ask  him  to  kindly  notify  me  of  the  time  for  the  arrival 
of  the  train. 

2.  I  begged  him  to  well  consider  the  subject. 

3.  I  wished  to  heartily  cooperate. 

Parsing. 

In  parsing  an  adverb  tell : 

1.  The  class  to  which  it  belongs. 

2.  The  degree  of  comparison. 

3.  The  use  in  the  sentence. 

Parse  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  They  wept  bitterly. 

2.  Why  did  they  walk  so  rapidly  ? 

3.  It  is  very  wise  to  talk  with  our  past  hours. 

4.  He  lived  there. 

5.  He  spoke  very  clearly,  but  quite  rapidly. 

6.  The  letter  was  most  formally  written. 

7.  They  were  too  much  astonished  to  reply  immediately. 

8.  He  soon  discovered  his  mistake  and  acted  accordingly. 

9.  He  is  far  from  home. 

10.  The  birds  flew  directly  over  our  heads. 


68  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

11.  The  postman  comes  twice  daily. 

12.  Surely  trouble  comes  soon  enough. 

13.  The  accident  happened  shortly  after  we  crossed  the  bridge. 

14.  That  clock  always  runs  too  fast. 

15.  So  great  a  change  was  rarely  ever  seen. 

16.  The  new  building  will  be  on  a  far  grander  scale. 

17.  Well,  I  will  let  you  know. 

18.  Why,  you  told  me  so  yourself. 


Test  Questions. — Sentence-Making. 

1.  What  is  an  adverb,  and  what  does  the  word  mean? 

2.  Into  how  many   principal   classes   may  adverbs  be 
divided  ? 

3.  In  what  respect   does   a   conjunctive   adverb  differ 
from  a  simple  adverb  ?     Illustrate. 

4.  In  what  respect  does  a  modal  adverb  differ  from  a 
simple  adverb  ? 

5.  Show  that   some  phrases  have  the  value  of  simple 
adverbs.     Illustrate. 

6.  Show  that  some  adverbs  modify  or  throw  their  force 
upon  entire  statements. 

7.  Show  that  a  substantive  clause,  an  adjective  clause, 
and  an  adverbial  clause  may  be  introduced  by  where. 

8.  Show  that  an  adverb  may  modify  a  phrase. 

9.  Compare  six  adverbs,  three  of  one  syllable,  three  of 
two  syllables. 

10.  Derive  five  adverbs  from  adjectives. 

11.  Compose  sentences,  using  in  the  first  a  clause  de- 
noting place,  in  the  second  a  clause  denoting  time,  in  the 
third  a  clause  denoting  manner,  in  the  fourth  a  clause 
denoting  cause  or  purpose. 


EXERCISE   VII. 

Prepositions. — Conjunctions.— Interjections. 

Prepositions. 

A  preposition  is  a  word  used  to  connect  other  words 
and  to  show  the  relation  between  them. 

A  preposition  shows  a  relation  between  two  terms, — 
an  antecedent  and  a  subsequent.  The  subsequent  term 
is  called  the  object  of  the  preposition.  The  object  of  a 
preposition  is  usually  a  wo^?i  or  a.  pronoun;  as,  1.  The  house 
on  the  hill  is  mine.     2.  He  went  after  him. 

The  object  of  a  preposition  may  be  an  adjective,  an 
adverb,  an  infinitive,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause  used  as  a  noun ; 
as,  Lift  up  your  voice  on  high.  Wait  till  then.  He  is  about 
to  go.     Wait  till  after  the  shower.     Listen  to  what  I  say. 

It  frequently  requires  two  or  more  words  to  express 
the  relation  that  a  noun-term  bears  to  the  word  which 
it  modifies.  Such  a  group  of  words  should  be  treated  as 
a  unit.     The  following  are  examples  : 

Out  of,  from  out,  as  to,  as  for,  on  board  of,  on  this  side,  along 
side,  in  front  of,  in  spite  of,  by  way  of,  by  means  of,  because  of, 
instead  of,  in  regard  to,  in  respect  of,  for  the  sake  of. 

Such  groups  are  called  complex  prepositions  or  preposition 
phrases  (not  prepositional  phrases). 

Some  verbs  take  a  prepositional  complement,  the  verb 
and  the  preposition  being  the  equivalent  of  a  transitive 

69 


70 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


verb ;  as,  He  carried  off  the  prize.  The  judge  winked  at 
the  iniquity  of  the  decision.  She  laughed  at  the  young 
man's  mistakes. 

Some  prepositions  are  restricted  by  their  meaning  and 
by  usage  to  definite  conditions  and  particular  combinations. 
Thus  between  always  implies  two,  and  not  more  than  two 
related  persons  or  things.  Among  implies  more  than  two. 
Beyond  is  appropriate  after  go,  and  above  after  rise.  In  is, 
generally,  quite  inappropriate  after  verbs  of  motion.  We 
go  into  a  house,  and  perhaps  stay  in  it. 

The  correct  use  of  prepositions  can  be  acquired  only  by 
correct  thinking  and  practice.  Clear  thinking  usually  selects 
the  right  word.  The  choice  of  a  preposition  depends  upon 
the  exact  idea  to  be  expressed. 

The  following  list  of  verbs,  nouns,  and  adjectives,  given 
by  Dr.  Angus,  in  his  Handbook  of  the  English  Tongue,  shows 
the  preposition  specially  associated  with  the  respective 
words : 


Accord  with. 

Accuse  of  crime  by  one's  friend. 

Acquit  persons  of. 

Affinity  to  or  between. 

Adapted  to  a  thing  or  for  a  pur- 
pose. 

Agreeable  to  ;  agree  with  persons 
and  to  things. 

Attend  to  (listen),  upon  (wait). 

Averse  to,  when  describing  feel- 
ing ;  from,  when  describing  an 
act  or  state. 

Bestow  upon. 

Boast  of. 


Call  on. 

Change  for. 

Confer  on  (give),  with  (converse). 

Confide  in  (when  intransitive), 
it  to  (when  transitive). 

Conformable  to. 

Compliance  with. 

Convenient  to  and  for. 

Conversant  with  persons  ;  in  af- 
fairs. 

Correspond  with  and  to. 

Coupled  with  and  by. 

Dependent  upon. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


71 


Derogatory  to  a  person  or  thing  ; 
to  derogate  from  authority. 

Die  of  or  by. 

Differ  from;  a  difference  with  a 
person  or  between  things. 

Difficulty  in. 

Diminution  of. 

Disappointed  of  something  we  do 
not  get,  in  it  when  obtained, 
if  it  does  not  answer  our  expec- 
tations. 

Disapprove  of. 

Discouragement  to. 

Dissent  from. 

Eager  in  or  about. 

Exceptions  to  or  against  state- 
ments ;  to  except  from. 

Expert  at  or  in. 

Fall  under  or  over. 

Free  from. 

Frown  at  or  on. 

Glad  of  something  gained  ;  of  or 
at  what  befalls  another. 

Independent  of. 

Inquire  of  or  about. 

Insist  upon. 


Made  of  or  for. 

Marry  to. 

Martyr  for  a  cause,  to  a  disease. 

Need  of. 

Observance  of. 

Prejudicial  to. 

Prejudice  against. 

Profit  by. 

Provide  for,  with,  against. 

Recreant  to,  from. 

Reconcile  to. 

Replete  with. 

Resemblance  to. 

Revolve  on. 

Reduce  to  order  and  under  sub- 
jection. 

Regard  for  or  to. 

Smile  at  or  upon. 

Swerve  from. 

Taste  of;  a  taste  for  (capacity  for 
enjoying). 

Think  of  or  on. 

Thirst  for  or  after. 

True  to  or  of. 

Wait  on,  at,  or  for. 

Worthy  of. 


In  the  use  of  a  preposition  inaccuracy  may  occur  (1)  in 
choice,  (2)  in  position,  (3)  in  insertion  or  omission,  (4)  in 
repetition. 

Correct  the  following  examples  with  reference  to  (1) 
choice  ;  (2)  position  ;  (3)  insertion  or  omission  ;  (4)  repetition. 

1.  The  evening  was  followed,  at  night,  with  a  storm  of  rain. 

2.  The  soil  is  adapted  for  hemp  and  tobacco. 

3.  Congress  consists  in  a  Senate  and  in  a  House  of  Representatives. 


72  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

4.  The  government  is  based  in  republican  principles. 

5.  The  client  believes  that  the  judge  is  prejudiced  about  his  cause. 

6.  The  case  has  no  resemblance  with  the  other. 

7.  In  contradistinction  from  the  other. 

8.  Religion  and  church  membership  often  differ  very  widely  with 
each  other. 

9.  He  was  accused  with  having  acted  unfairly. 

10.  You  may  rely  in  what  I  say,  and  confide  on  his  honesty. 

11.  These  bonnets  were  brought  in  fashion  last  year. 

12.  The  bird  flew  up  in  the  tree. 

13.  Charles  let  his  dollar  drop  in  the  creek. 

14.  It  is  an  affair  on  which  I  am  not  interested. 

15.  He  went  to  see  his  friends  on  horseback. 

16.  Habits  must  be  acquired  of  temperance  and  self-denial. 

17.  He  rushed  into,  and  expired  in,  the  flames. 

18.  The  cost  of  the  carriage  was  added  to,  and  greatly  increased 
my  account. 

19.  It  was  to  your  brother  to  whom  I  was  mostly  indebted. 

20.  The  sycamore  was  fifteen  feet  diameter. 

21.  From  having  heard  of  his  distress,  I  sent  him  relief. 

22.  My  business  prevented  me  attending  the  last  meeting  of  the 
Caledonian  Society. 

23.  The  attack  is  unworthy  your  notice. 

24.  San  Francisco  is  the  other  side  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

25.  The  spring  is  near  to  the  house. 

26.  Many  talented  men  have  deserted  from  the  party. 

27.  I  admit  of  what  you  say. 

Conjunctions. 

A  conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  sentences  or 
parts  of  sentences. 

Connectives  are  divided  into  two  principal  classes — coor- 
dinate and  subordinate. 

Coordinate  connectives  are  those  that  join  words, 
phrases,  or  sentences  of  equal  rank,  and  are  divided  into 


CONJUNCTIONS.  73 

three  classes, — copulative,  alternative,  and  adversative  ;  as, 

1.  The  horse  and  rider  fell  over  the  precipice.  2.  Come,  or 
I  will  go.  3.  The  horse  fell  over  the  precipice,  but  the 
rider  escaped. 

A  copulative  conjunction  is  one  that  connects  elements 
in  harmony  with  each  other ;  as,  and,  also,  likewise,  besides, 
moreover. 

An  alternate  conjunction  is  one  that  offers  or  denies 
a  choice ;  as,  or,  nor,  either,  neither,  else,  otherwise. 

An  adversative  conjunction  is  one  that  implies  that 
the  parts  connected  are  opposed  to  each  other;  as,  but, 
yet,  only,  than,  lest,  though,  nevertheless,  notwithstanding. 

A  causal  conjunction  is  one  that  connects  elements, 
one  of  which  is  the  cause,  reason,  or  result  of  the  other ; 
as,  for,  hence,  because,  therefore,  consequently. 

Correlatives. — Either  and  or,  with  their  negatives,  neither 
and  nor,  are  called  correlatives  (having  a  mutual  relation), 
because  they  are  generally  used  in  pairs,  introducing  the 
alternatives ;  as,  Dither  he  must  leave,  or  I  shall  resign. 
Neither  this  man  sinned,  nor  his  parents. 

Subordinate  connectives  are  those  that  join  elements 
of  unequal  rank;   as,  1.  He  came  when  we  invited  him. 

2.  He  said  that  he  was  pleased.  3.  He  died  on  the  spot 
where  he  fell. 

Subordinate  connectives  are  divided  into  three  clases, — 
those  which  connect  substantive  clauses,  those  which  con- 
nect adjective  clauses,  and  those  which  connect  adverbial 
clauses. 


74  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

The  principal  subordinate  conjunctions  are  that,  if,  lest, 
though,  after,  before,  since,  except,  until,  for,  because,  although. 

NOTE. — A  subordinate  connective,  like  a  prepo- 
sition, shows  a  relation  of  dependence.  A  preposi- 
tion shows  the  relation  between  a  noun  or  a  pronoun 
and  another  term.  A  subordinate  connective  shows 
the  relation  of  a  dependent  proposition  to  an  inde- 
pendent sentence. 

A  connective  may  consist  of  two  or  more  words  taken 
together  as  one  word  ;  as,  1.  He  called  on  me  as  if  he  knew 
I  would  help  him.  2.  America  has  its  duties  as  well  as  its 
rights.  3.  One  is  no  longer  happy  as  soon  as  he  wishes 
to  be  happier.  Such  forms  are  phrase  conjunctions.  The 
most  common  of  the  phrase  conjunctions  are  as  if,  as 
though,  as  well  as,  as  soon  as,  in  order  that,  for  as  much  as, 
provided  that,  no  sooner  than.  These  forms  should  be 
treated  as  inseparable,  as  one  word. 

Interjections. 

An  interjection  is  an  exclamatory  word  used  for  the 
purpose  of  expressing  feeling. 

The  common  interjections  are  those  expressing :  joy,  hey, 
huzza ;  surprise,  aha,  hah  ;  attention,  ho,  halloo ;  aversion, 
fie,  pshaw  ;  sorrow,  alas,  woe  ;  silence,  hist,  hush,  mum. 

Interjections  are  sometimes  combined  with  other  words 
to  make  exclamatory  phrases  ;  as,  Ah  me  !  Alas  the  day  ! 
0  horror  !      What  ho  !     0  for  rest ! 

NOTE. — As  the  interjection  is  not  the  sign  of  an 
idea,  but  an  expression  of  emotion,  it  cannot  have  any 
definable  signification  or  grammatical  construction. 


PARSING.  75 

Parsing. 

In  parsing  a  preposition  tell : 

1.  The  kind  of  phrase  it  introduces. 

2.  The  tvords  between  which  it  shows  a  relation. 

In  parsing  a  conjunction  tell : 

1.  The  kind — coordinate  or  subordinate  (if  coordinate, 

the  sub-class). 

2.  What  it  connects. 

Parse  the  prepositions  and  the  conjunctions  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1.  The  steed  along  the  drawbridge  flies. 

2.  They  live  in  a  village  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain. 

3.  The  trees  are  hoary  with  age. 

4.  There  was  one  clear  shining  star  that  used  to  come  out  in  the 
sky  before  the  rest,  near  the  church  spire,  above  the  graves. 

5.  The  highest  fame  was  never  reached  except  by  what  was  aimed 
above  it. 

6.  I  bring  fresh  showers  for  the  thirsting  flowers,  from  the  seas 
and  streams. 

7.  Glorious  indeed   is   the   world  of   God   around  us,   but  more 
glorious  is  the  world  of  God  within  us. 

8.  Men  must  be  taught  as  if  you  taught  them  not. 

9.  Come  back  as  soon  as  you  can. 

10.  Do  your  work,  otherwise  you  will  not  get  any  pay. 

11.  Hannah,  the  housemaid,  laughed  with  her  eyes  as  she  listened, 
but  governed  her  tongue,  and  was  silent. 

12.  Neither  the  sunbeams,  nor  the  birds,  nor  the  red  clouds,  which 
morning  and  evening  sailed  above  him,  gave  the  little  tree  any 
pleasure. 

13.  What  recked  the  chieftain  if  he  stood 

On  Highland  heath  or  Holy  rood? — Scott. 


76  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

14.  And  the  stars  never  rise  but  I  feel  the  bright  eyes 

Of  the  beautiful  Annabel  Lee. — Poe. 

15.  The  coming  and  going  of  the  birds  is  more  or  less  a  mystery 
and  a  surprise. 

16.  As  for  him,  let  him  earn  his  living. 

17.  Because  of  his  mother  he  was  pardoned. 

18.  In  regard  to  that  I  have  nothing  to  say. 

19.  He  passed  along  in  front  of  you. 

20.  He  carried  off  the  prize. 

21.  She  laughed  at  the  mistake. 

22.  For  as  much  as  I  care,  he  may  try  to  do  it. 

23.  No  sooner  than  said,  it  was  performed. 

24.  Come  out  of  the  room. 

25.  For  the  sake  of  your  own  good  name  abstain  from  the  use  of 
intoxicating  drinks. 

Test  Questions. — Sentence-Making. 

1.  In  what  important  respect  does  a  preposition  differ 
from  a  conjunction  ? 

2.  Into  how  many  principal  classes  are  conjunctions 
divided  ? 

3.  Into  how  many  sub-classes  are  coordinate  conjunc- 
tions divided  ? 

4.  In  what  important  respect  does  a  coordinate  conjunc- 
tion differ  from  a  subordinate  conjunction  ? 

5.  In  each  of  four  sentences,  use  a  different  relative 
pronoun  and  show  that  it  is  a  subordinate  conjunction. 

6.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  a  different  conjunctive 
adverb  and  show  that  it  is  a  subordinate  conjunction. 

7.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  a  preposition  phrase 
and  name  the  elements  between  which  it  shows  a  relation. 

8.  In  the  first  of  two  sentences,  use  a  phrase  as  the 
object  of  a  preposition,  in  the  second,  use  a  clause  as 
the  object. 


TEST-QUESTIONS.  77 

9.  In  each  of  two  sentences,  use  a  conjunction  phrase 
and  name  the  elements  connected. 

10.  What  important  fact  distinguishes  a  preposition  phrase 
from  a  conjunction  phrase  ? 

11.  Use  until  as  a  preposition,  also  as  a  conjunction. 

12.  Use  for  as  a  preposition,  also  as  a  conjunction. 

13.  Show  that  an  intransitive  verb  may  take  a  preposi- 
tion as  a  complement  and  that  the  verb-term  does  the  work 
of  a  transitive  verb. 

14.  In  each  of  two  sentences,  use  an  alternative  conjunc- 
tion and  show  that  each  conjunction  offers  or  denies  a  choice. 

15.  In  each  of  two  sentences,  use  a  different  adversative 
conjunction  and  show  that  the  second  part  of  the  sentence 
opposes  the  first. 

16.  Use  thai,  hence,  and  therefore  in  sentences  and  show 
that  the  second  part  of  each  sentence  is  the  reason  or 
result  of  the  first  part. 

17.  Use  either  and  or  with  their  correlatives  neither  and 
nor  and  show  their  mutual  dependence. 

18.  Use  but  as  a  preposition,  also  as  a  conjunction. 

19.  Use  after  as  a  preposition,  also  as  a  conjunction. 

20.  In  connection  with  the  first  of  two  simple  sentences, 
use  an  interjection  which  expresses  joy  ;  in  the  second,  use 
an  interjection  which  expresses  sorroio. 

21.  In  connection  with  each  of  two  simple  sentences, 
use  a  different  exclamatory  phrase. 


EXERCISE  VIII. 

Grammatical  Terms. — General  View. 

As  the  sentence  is  the  unit  of  expression,  a  knowledge  of 
its  structure  is  essential  to  a  clear  expression  of  thought. 

A  grammatical  term  is  a  word,  or  a  group  of  related 
words,  that  performs  a  distinct  office  in  the  structure  of  a 
sentence. 

There  are  four  principal  grammatical  terms, — noun-terms, 
adjective-terms,  verb-terms,  and  adverb-terms. 

Noun-Terms. 

A  noun  is  a  word  used  as  a  name.  A  noun-term  is  a 
word,  or  group  of  related  words,  that  is  used  as  a  noun. 
In  form  it  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause ;  as  God  is 
love.  Helping  others  helps  ourselves.  To  save  time  is  to 
lengthen  life.  That  music  hath  charms  is  true.  He  replied, 
/  have  recited.  My  home  is  wherever  I  am  happy.  You  err 
in  that  you  think  so. 

Adjective-Terms. 

An  adjective  is  a  word  used  to  limit  the  meaning  of  a 
noun.  An  adjective-term  is  a  word,  or  group  of  related 
words,  that  is  used  as  an  adjective.  In  form  it  may  be  a 
word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause;  as,  Good  boys  are  obedient. 
Men  of  culture  may  be  happy.     An  adjective  clause  is  one 

that  describes  or  limits  a  substantive. 

78 


VERB-TERMS.  79 

Verb-Terms. 

A  verb  is  a  word  used  to  assert  something  of  a  person  or 
a  thing.  A  verb-term  is  a  word,  or  group  of  related  words, 
that  is  used  as  a  verb.  In  form  it  may  be  a  single  word,  or 
a  verb-phrase ;  as,  He  is.  Flowers  bloom.  He  should  have 
been  rewarded. 

Adverb-Terms. 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a 
verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb.  An  adverb-term  is 
a  word,  or  group  of  related  words,  that  is  used  as  an  adverb. 
In  form  it  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause;  as,  He  came 
early.  We  will  return  in  the  morning.  He  came  ichen  you 
called  him.     She  lies  where  first  the  sunbeams  fall. 

NOTES.— I.  The  sum  is  this :  The  noun-term,  the 
adjective-term,  and  the  adverb- term  have  only  three 
forms  each, — the  word-form,  the  phrase-form,  and 
the  clause-form.  In  each  form,  the  term  does  the 
■work  of  a  single  part  of  speech. 

n.  Any  word,  phrase,  clause,  mark,  or  symbol, 
which  may  be  made  the  subject  of  a  verb,  or  the  ob- 
ject of  a  verb,  a  participle,  an  infinitive,  a  preposition, 
or  the  substantive  complement  of  a  copulative  verb, 
is  a  noun-term.  It  is  an  object  conception  and  is 
grasped  by  the  mind  as  an  entirety. 

m.  Whatever  describes  or  limits  a  noun  or  a 
pronoun  is  an  adjective-term.  It  is  a  quality  concep- 
tion in  distinction  from  an  object  conception.  The 
adjective-term,  like  the  noun-term,  is  regarded  by  the 
mind  as  one  descriptive  or  limiting  term. 

IV.  Whatever  modifies  a  verb,  a  verb-phrase,  an 
adjective,  or  an  adverb  is  an  adverb-term.  The  mind 
graps  it  as  a  single  term. 

V.  The  verb-term  is  always  a  verb,  or  some  other 
part  of  speech  used  as  a  verb.    If  the  verb  is  com- 


80  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

pie  ted  by  a  noun  (telling  -what  the  subject  is),  or  by 
an  adjective  (describing  the  subject),  the  noun-term 
or  the  adjective-term  thus  used  is  the  true  predicate. 

VI.  The  word-form  of  a  grammatical  term  is  a 
single  ■word. 

VII.  The  phrase-form  of  a  grammatical  term  con- 
sists of  a  preposition  or  a  participle  combined  with 
a  significant  word  or  group  of  related  words  used  as 
a  single  part  of  speech.  The  phrase-form  of  a  gram- 
matical term  is  always  used  as  a  noun,  an  adjective, 
or  an  adverb. 

VTH.  The  clause-form  of  a  grammatical  term  is 
a  dependent  sentence.  It  does  the  work  of  a  noun, 
an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

Test  Questions.— Sentence-Making. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase,  a  grammatical  termf 

2.  What  is  a  noun-term  ? 

3.  How  many  forms  has  the  noun-term  ? 

4.  What  is  an  adjective-term  ? 

5.  How  many  forms  has  the  adjective-term? 

6.  What  is  a  verb-term  ? 

7.  How  many  forms  has  the  verb-term  ? 

8.  In  the  first  of  two  simple  sentences,  use  a  single  verb  ; 
in  the  second,  use  a  verb-phrase. 

9.  What  is  an  adverb-term  ? 

10.  How  many  forms  has  the  adverb-term  ? 

11.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  a  different  form  of  the 
noun-term. 

12.  In  the  same  sentence,  use  the  three  forms  of  the  ad- 
jective-term. 

13.  In  the  same  sentence,  use  the  three  forms  of  the  ad- 
verb-term. 


EXERCISE  IX. 

The  Sentence.— Use. — Structure. 

A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  expressing  a  thought ;  as, 
The  laws  of  nature  are  the  thoughts  of  the  Creator. 

Every  sentence  consists  of  two  parts, — a  subject  and  a 
predicate. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  part  of  the  sentence 
about  which  something  is  said ;  as,  The  laws  of  nature  are 
the  thoughts  of  the  Creator. 

The  predicate  of  a  sentence  is  the  part  of  the  sentence 
that  expresses  what  is  said  about  the  subject ;  as,  The  laws 
of  nature  are  the  thoughts  of  the  Creator. 

Sentences  are  classified  with  regard  to  use,  also  with  re- 
gard to  structure. 

I.  According  to  their  use,  they  are  classified  as  declara- 
tive, interrogative,  imperative,  and  exclamatory. 

A  declarative  sentence  is  one  that  declares  or  tells  some- 
thing; as,  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate. 

An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  that  asks  a  question : 
as,  Does  one  always  reap  what  he  sows  ? 

An  imperative  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a  request 
or  a  command  ;  as,  Get  me  permission  to  go  home. 

An  exclamatory  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  emotion 
or  surprise  ;  as,  How  like  a  villain  he  looks  ! 

6  81 


82  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

II.  According  to  their  structure  sentences  are  classified  as 
simple,  complex,  and  compound. 

A  simple  sentence  is  one  that  contains  only  one  asser- 
tion ;  as,  Integrity  of  purpose  is  always  admired. 

A  complex  sentence  is  one  that  contains  one  principal 
assertion  and  one  or  more  subordinate  assertions ;  as,  The 
task,  which  was  assigned  him,  was  too  difficult. 

A  compound  sentence  is  one  that  contains  two  or  more 
coordinate  assertions ;  as,  Time  is  more  valuable  than 
money,  but  few  recognize  the  fact. 

Test  Questions. — Sentence-Making. 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  In  every  recitation  the  most 
inspiring,  illustrative  sentences,  original  or  quoted, 
should  be  written  upon  the  blackboard  for  the  in- 
spection of  the  class.  Pupils  do  not  study  grammar 
merely  to  learn  how  to  imprison  sentences  in  dia- 
grams, analyze  sentences,  and  parse  words  mechani- 
cally, but  to  learn  to  express  their  own  thoughts 
clearly,  concisely,  and  logically. 

As  mind  is  developed  only  by  what  it  creates  and 
uses,  the  pupil  should  be  required  to  use  a  grammati- 
cal fact  in  original  sentences  as  soon  as  he  has 
learned  it.  This  method  requires  the  pupil  to  review 
what  he  has  gone  over  and  to  compose  sentences. 
It  tends  to  impress  on  him  the  fact  that  he  must 
get  understanding  while  he  is  getting  information, 
Insist  upon  thoughtful  illustrations.  Exact  and  ac- 
cept only  such  illustrative  sentences,  original  and 
quoted,  as  show  a  careful  preparation  of  the  lesson 
on  the  part  of  the  class.  Teachers  should  ever  bear 
in  mind  the  fact  that  there  is  nothing  inspiring  or 
lasting  in  merely  formal  recitations.  The  aim  is  to 
make  these  exercises  interesting  and  profitable  by 
omitting  detail,  and  presenting  only  points  of  general 


THE   SENTENCE.  83 

importance.  They  compel  thought  but  do  not  tax 
the  memory.  A  grammatical  relation  applied  in  the 
construction  of  original  sentences  "will  be  remem- 
bered long  after  technical  terms  are  forgotten.  The 
use  of  language  should  accompany  the  study  of  its 
structure.  The  exercises  are  a  complete  review  of 
the  text,  and  should  be  made  topics  for  real  language 
lessons — oral  and  written. 

1.  In  what  respect  does  a  complex  sentence  differ  from 
a  compound  sentence  ? 

2.  In  what  respect  does  a  compound  sentence  differ  from 
a  simple  sentence  ? 

3.  In  what  respect  does  a  declarative  sentence   differ 
from  an  exclamatory  sentence  ? 

4.  In  what  respect  does  an  interrogative  sentence  differ 
from  an  imperative  sentence  ? 

5.  In  what  respect  does  an  exclamatory  sentence  differ 
from  the  other  kinds  of  sentences  in  regard  to  use  ? 

6.  In  what  does  a  simple  sentence  differ  from  a  com- 
plex sentence  ? 

7.  Compose  three  simple  sentences. 

8.  Compose  three  complex  sentences. 

9.  Compose  three  compound  sentences. 

10.  Compose  three  compound-complex  sentences. 

11.  Connect  the  two  members  of  a  compound  sentence 
with  and,  with  also,  with  besides. 


EXERCISE   X. 

Phrases. 

A  phrase  is  a  group  of  words  not  containing  subject  and 
predicate  and  used  as  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

According  to  their  uses,  phrases  are  classified  as  substan- 
tive, adjective,  and  adverbial. 

A  substantive  phrase  is  one  used  as  a  noun  ;  as,  1.  To 
do  right  is  a  duty.  2.  He  likes  to  study  arithmetic.  3.  My 
purpose  is  to  finish  the  work. 

An  adjective  phrase  is  one  used  as  an  adjective ;  as,  1. 
The  laws  of  nature  are  the  thoughts  of  God.  2.  He  has  a 
library  filled  with  rare  books.  3.  A  ship,  gliding  over  the 
water,  is  a  beautiful  sight. 

An  adverbial  phrase  is  one  that  is  used  as  an  adverb ; 
as,  1.  The  birds  will  return  in  the  spring.  2.  I  shall  be 
glad  to  see  you.     3.  Believing  in  him,  he  trusted  him. 

Phrases  are  also  distinguished  with  regard  to  form,  as 
prepositional,  participial,  and  infinitive. 

A  prepositional  phrase  consists  of  a  preposition  and  its 
object;  as,  The  children  in  the  grove  are  happy.  He  came 
to  town  yesterday. 

An  infinitive  phrase  is  one  introduced  by  to  followed  by 
a  verb ;  as,  To  love  is  to  live.  To  launch  the  boat  was  a  long 
and  pleasant  task. 

84 


PHRASES.  85 

A  participial  phrase  is  one  introduced  by  a  participle  and 
used  as  an  adjective  ;  as,  1.  Forsaken  by  his  friends,  he  was 
defeated.  2.  Truth,  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again. 
3.  Caesar,  having  arrived,  decided  to  cross  the  Rhine. 

Phrases  are  also  distinguished  as  simple,  complex,  com- 
pound, independent,  and  idiomatic. 

A  simple  phrase  is  a  single,  unmodified  phrase ;  as,  He 
came  to  town  yesterday.     Heaven  hides  the  book  of  fate. 

A  complex  phrase  is  a  modified  phrase  ;  as,  Pines  grow 
on  the  very  tops  of  the  highest  mountains. 

A  compound  phrase  is  composed  of  two  or  more  phrases 
of  equal  rank ;  as,  We  should  learn  to  labor  and  to  wait. 

A  phrase  may  be  wholly  independent  in  meaning  and  in 
grammar ;  as,  To  say  the  truth,  he  was  a  conscientious  man. 
To  make  a  long  story  short,  the  company  disbanded. 

An  idiomatic  phrase  is  one  peculiar  to  a  language.  The 
relation  of  an  idiomatic  phrase  to  the  sentence  with  which 
it  is  used  is  logical,  not  grammatical.  Our  language  abounds 
in  idiomatic  phrases  ;  as,  As  yet,  by  far,  at  last,  at  first,  at 
present,  at  random,  by  the  by,  out  and  out,  side  by  side,  hand 
to  hand,  through  and  through,  year  by  year,  etc. 

From  the  foregoing  discussion  we  glean  the  following  im- 
portant facts : 

1.  That  a  prepositional  phrase  may  be  used  as  an  adjec- 
tive or  as  an  adverb. 

2.  That  an  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  as  a  noun,  an 
adjective,  or  adverb. 

3.  That  phrases  are  used  as  parts  of  speech,  and  should 
be  regarded  as  units. 


86  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


Test  Questions — Sentence-Making. 

1.  What  is  a  phrase  in  grammar? 

2.  With  regard  to  use,  how  are  phrases  classified  ? 

3.  What  is  a  substantive  phrase  ? 

4.  In  each  of  three  simple  sentences,  use  a  substantive 
phrase  in  different  grammatical  relation. 

5.  What  is  an  adjective  phrase? 

6.  In  each  of  two  sentences,  use  an  adjective  phrase  in 
a  different  relation. 

7.  Show   that  an  adjective  of   the  word-form  may  be 
substituted  for  an  adjective  of  the  phrase-form. 

8.  What  is  an  adverbial  phrase  ? 

9.  In  each  of  two  sentences,  use  an  adverbial  phrase. 

10.  In  the  first  of  three  sentences,  use  a  phrase  denoting 
time ;  in  the  second,  one  denoting  place ;  in  the  third,  one 
denoting  manner. 

11.  With  regard  to  form,  how  are  phrases  classified  ? 

12.  What  is  a  prepositional  phrase  ? 

13.  Show  that  a  prepositional  phrase  may  be  used  as  an 
adjective  or  as  an  adverb. 

14.  What  is  an  infinitive  phrase  ? 

15.  Use  an  infinitive  phrase  (1)  as  a  noun ;  (2)  as  an  ad- 
jective ;  (3)  as  an  adverb. 

16.  Use  an  infinitive  phrase  (1)  as  the  object  of  a  verb; 
(2)  as  the  complement  of  a  verb  ;  (3)  as  the  object  of  a  par- 
ticiple ;  (4)  as  the  object  of  a  preposition. 

17.  In  each  of  two  sentences,  use  a  simple  phrase. 

18.  In  each  of  two  sentences,  use  a  complex  phrase. 

19.  In  a  simple  sentence,  use  a  compound  phrase. 

20.  Use  two  independent  phrases. 


EXERCISE   XL 

Clauses, 

A  clause  is  a  group  of  words  containing  subject  and 
predicate  and  used  as  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

According  to  their  uses,  clauses  are  classified  as  substan- 
tive, adjective,  and  adverbial. 

A  substantive  clause  is  one  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  1. 
That  might  makes  right  is  untrue.  2.  See  how  the  leaves 
have  turned.     3.  The  belief  is  that  the  soul  is  immortal. 

NOTE. — A  substantive  clause  -when  used  as  the 
subject  of  a  verb,  the  object  of  a  verb,  or  the  com- 
plement of  a  copulative  verb,  is  dependent  on  the 
rest  of  the  sentence  for  its  meaning-. 

An  adjective  clause  is  one  used  as  an  adjective ;  as,  1. 
The  boy,  who  was  here,  is  my  son.  2.  I  know  something 
which  I  wish  to  tell  you.  3.  He  dreamed  of  the  place  where 
in  youth  he  had  played.  4.  Samuel  Morse  is  the  man  that 
invented  the  telegraph. 

An  adverbial  clause  is  one  used  as  an  adverb ;  as,  1. 
He  left  before  you  returned.  2.  I  am  glad  that  you  came. 
3.  He  came  earlier  than  he  was  expected. 

NOTE. — On  account  of  its  extent  and  frequent 
use,  the  adverbial  clause  merits  special  notice.  An 
absolute  classification  cannot  be  made,  as  the 
clauses  shade  into  one  another  in  meaning.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  the  classification  here  given 
is  sufficiently  critical  for  all  practical  purposes. 

87 


88  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

An  adverbial  clause  may  denote  time,  place,  manner,  degree, 
cause,  result. 

Time;  as,  1.  Work  while  it  is  yet  to-day.  2.  Rich  gifts 
wax  poor  when  givers  prove  unkind.  3.  He  was  killed  while 
he  was  on  picket  duty. 

Place;  as,  1.  He  was  welcome  wherever  he  went.  2. 
Wheresoever  the  carcass  is,  there  the  buzzards  are. 

Manner;  as,  1.  As  is  the  teacher,  so  is  the  school.  2. 
He  died  as  he  had  lived.  3.  He  worked  as  if  his  life 
depended  upon  it. 

Degree;  as,  1.  They  all  became  wiser  than  they  were. 
2.  We  rise  in  glory  as  we  sink  in  pride. 

Cause;  as,  1.  He  is  studious,  for  he  knows  his  lesson.  2. 
I  shall  read  the  book,  since  you  recommend  it. 

Result ;  as,  He  behaved  so  badly  that  he  was  expelled. 

Like  Uses  of  Phrases  and  Clauses. 

As  phrases  and  clauses  are  used  in  the  construction 
of  sentences  as  nouns,  adjectives,  and  adverbs,  it  is  very 
important  that  the  several  forms  and  uses  of  these  two 
grammatical  terms  should  be  thoroughly  understood  by 
the  pupil.  Logically  they  are  regarded  as  parts  of  speech, 
because  they  are  used  as  parts  of  speech.  The  mind 
grasps  them  and  uses  them  as  units,  as  wholes. 

I.  As  Nouns. 

Each  may  be  used  in  at  least  six  grammatical  relations 
as  nouns  :  (1)  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  ;  (2)  as  the  object  of 
a  verb ;  (3)  as  the  complement  of  a  copulative  verb ;  (4) 


CLAUSES.  89 

as  the  object  of  a  preposition  ;  (5)  as  the  object  of  an  infini- 
tive ;  (6)  as  the  object  of  a  participle. 

As  Subject:  1.  To  do  right  is  a  duty.  2.  That  music 
hath  charms  is  not  denied. 

As  Object:  1.  He  likes  to  sing.  2.  He  said  "  Come 
to  see  me." 

As  Complement :  1.  To  love  is  to  live.  2.  The  home  is 
wherever  the  heart  is. 

As  Object  of  a  Preposition :  1.  I  am  about  to  close  the 
recitation.     2.  He  succeeds  in  whatever  he  undertakes. 

As  Object  of  an  Infinitive :  1.  To  think  about  going 
home  is  pleasant.  2.  To  believe  that  most  men  are  honest  is 
encouraging. 

As  Object  of  a  Participle  :  1.  Expecting  to  see  you,  I 
tarried.     2.  Having  said,  Grant  won  the  battle,  he  retired. 

II.  As  Adjectives. 

An  adjective  phrase  or  an  adjective  clause  may  limit  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun  anywhere  in  the  sentence. 

1.  A  statue  of  marble  was  chiselled  by  an  artist. 

2.  He  climbed  to  the  top  of  the  mountain. 

3.  He  is  a  man  of  great  wealth. 

4.  I  am  on  my  way  to  the  city  of  St.  Louis,  which  is  situated  on 
the  Mississippi  River. 

5.  I  saw  him  of  great  renown. 

6.  I  saw  him  that  has  great  renown,  etc. 

HI.  As  Adverbs. 

An  adverbial  phrase  or  an  adverbial  clause  may  modify 
a  verb,  a  verb-phrase,  or  an  adjective. 


90  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

1.  He  came  in  the  morning. 

2.  He  came  after  I  invited  him. 

3.  He  will  come  in  the  afternoon. 

4.  He  will  come  when  we  send  for  him. 

5.  I  am  glad  to  see  you. 

6.  I  am  glad  that  you  are  here. 

NOTE. — The  pupil  will  note  that  phrases  are 
introduced  by  prepositions  and  participles,  and  that 
clauses  are  introduced  by  relative  pronouns  and 
conjunctive  adverbs.  He  will  also  note  that  the 
second  term  or  subsequent  of  a  phrase  is  always  a 
noun  or.  an  element  used  as  a  noun,  and  that  the 
second  term  of  a  clause — the  term  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  connective — is  always  a  proposition,  a 
dependent  sentence,  a  limiting  expression ;  it  is 
unlike  the  part  with  which  it  is  connected  in  its 
form,  in  its  rank,  and  in  its  grammatical  character. 

Test  Questions. — Sentence-Making. 

1.  Define  a  clause. 

2.  In  what  respect  are  phrases  and  clauses  alike  ? 

3.  In  what  respect  are  phrases  and  clauses  unlike  ? 

4.  Use  a  substantive  clause  (1)  as  the  subject  of  a  verb ; 
(2)  as  the  object  of  a  verb ;  (3)  as  the  complement  of  a 
copulative  verb. 

5.  Use  a  substantive  clause  (1)  as  the  object  of  a  prep- 
osition ;  (2)  as  the  object  of  an  infinitive. 

6.  Introduce  a  substantive  clause  with  why,  with  who. 

7.  Introduce  an  adjective  clause  with  that,  with  who. 

8.  Use  an  adverbial  clause  (1)  to  modify  a  single  verb ; 

(2)  to  modify  a  verb-phrase  ;  (3)  to  modify  an  adjective. 

9.  Introduce  an  adverbial  clause  with  when,  with  where. 
10.  Use  a  clause  (1)  to  denote  time;  (2)  to  denote  place; 

(3)  to  denote  manner  ;  (4)  to  denote  purpose. 


EXERCISE    XII. 

Copula. — Complement. — Object. 

TO  TEACHER  AND  PUPIL :  A  clear  understand- 
ing of  the  nature  of  the  copula  verb  and  the  comple- 
ments used  with  it  to  form  complete  predicates  is 
absolutely  necessary  in  order  to  grasp  the  meaning 
of  the  sentence. 

A  copula  verb  is  a  verb  that  merely  asserts  an  attribute 
of  a  noun.  It  joins  together  in  logical  union  the  subject  and 
the  predicate  of  a  proposition. 

In  every  proposition  there  are  three  terms, — the  subject, 
the  verb,  and  the  predicate.  The  subject  is  the  person  or 
the  thing  about  which  something  is  asserted ;  the  predicate 
is  the  thing  or  the  quality  that  limits  the  subject ;  the  verb 
is  the  word  that  asserts.  In  the  proposition,  "  The  apple  is 
nutritious,11  the  word  apple  is  that  about  which  something 
is  asserted,  hence  it  is  the  subject ;  nutritious  is  the  quality 
affirmed  of  the  apple,  hence  it  is  the  predicate ;  is,  is  the 
asserting  word,  the  word  that  joins  the  predicate  to  the  sub- 
ject, hence  it  is  the  copula. 

The  complement  of  a  copulative  verb  is  the  word,  phrase 
or  clause  that  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb.     Comple- 
ments are  of  two  kinds, — adjective  complements  and  noun 
complements. 

An  adjective  complement  is  an  adjective-term  used  with 

a  verb  to  complete  its  meaning;  as,  1.  He  is  sick.     2.  He 

seems  happy.     3.  She  is  in  poor  health. 

91 


92  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

A  noun  complement  is  a  noun-term  used  with  a  verb 
to  complete  its  meaning ;  as,  1,  He  is  a  good  man.  2.  It  is 
a  tree.  3.  He  is  to  improve.  4.  The  home  is  wherever  the 
heart  is.     5.  The  belief  is  that  the  soul  is  immortal. 

NOTES.— I.  The  phrase-form  of  the  complement 
may  be  any  phrase  -which  is  the  equivalent  of  a  pred- 
icate adjective ;  as,  He  is  in  misery — he  is  miserable. 
He  is  at  liberty — he  is  free.  Time  is  of  great  value — time  is 
valuable.  But  not  all  phrases  which  follow  the  verb  to 
be,  are  complement  terms;  as,  He  is  in  Texas  (adv.). 
The  work  done  by  the  phrase  in  the  special  sentence 
must  determine  whether  it  is  a  complement-term  or 
an  adverb-term. 

II.  The  clause-form  of  the  substantive  comple- 
ment of  a  copulative  verb  may  be  any  clause  that 
does  the  work  of  a  noun ;  as,  The  fact  is  that  he  came. 
The  question  is  how  can  he  be  saved.  The  condition  is  if 
the  enemy  attempt  to  cross  the  river.  The  point  is  what  is  to  be 
done  first.     The  home  is  wherever  the  heart  is. 

HI.  The  adjective  complement  denotes  a  quality 
conception;  as,  John  is  happy.  Sugar  is  sweet.  The 
noun  complement  denotes  an  object  conception ;  as, 
It  is  a  horse.    Elizabeth  was  queen. 

IV.  The  verb-form  always  embraces  two  distinct 
constituents, —  copula,  complement.  In  attributive 
verbs,  both  of  these  parts  are  incorporated  into  one 
word.  Attributive  verbs  not  only  assert,  they  indicate 
what  is  asserted  ;  as,  He  ivalks — he  is  walking. 

V.  "When  the  attribute  is  an  action,  it  blends  with 
the  verb  and  both  are  used  as  one  word ;  as,  The  boy 
is  running.  He  was  killed.  The  field  was  ploughed.  "When 
the  copula  is  combined  with  the  present  participle,  the 
two  constitute  the  progressive  form  of  the  verb ;  when 
combined  with  the  past  participle,  they  constitute  the 
passive  voice  form  of  the  verb. 

VI.  Sometimes  the  copula  and  complement  do 
the  work  of  a  single  verb ;  as,  I  am  of  the  opinion ;  that 
is,  I  believe. 


COMPLEMENTS.  93 

VII.  The  copula  may  be  a  verb-phrase;  as,  He 
might  have  been  chairman  of  the  meeting.  He  should  have 
been  punished. 

Vm.  Many  verb-phrases  in  the  passive  voice  are 
used  as  copulas  ;  as,  He  was  elected  chairman.  He  was 
considered  honest. 

The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  the  word  or  group  of 
words  which  shows  what  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb 
affects.  It  is  always  a  noun-term.  In  form  it  may  be  a 
word,  &  phrase,  or  a  clause  ;  as,  The  mother  loves  her  child. 
He  likes  to  read.     Columbus  proved  that  the  earth  is  round. 

Unlike  Uses  of  Complements  and  Objects. 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  The  pupil  should  be  trained 
to  see  at  a  glance  the  use  of  a  grammatical  term.  A 
complement,  whether  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause, 
completes  the  verb  by  referring  to  the  subject.  An 
object,  whether  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause,  com- 
pletes the  meaning  of  the  verb  by  showing  what  the 
action  expressed  by  the  verb  affects.  A  complement 
is  an  attribute,  a  descriptive  element,  logically  an 
adjective.  An  object  is  a  noun,  a  modifier  of  the 
verb,  it  limits  the  verb.  A  few  illustrations  will  make 
these  facts  clear. 

Complements :  1.  It  is  X  2.  It  is  she.  3.  The  milk  is 
sour.  4.  He  is  dead.  5.  She  is  in  poor  health.  6.  The 
coin  is  of  value.  7.  John  seems  to  be  angry.  8.  He  is  in 
much  pain.  9.  To  love  is  to  live.  10.  Seeing  is  believing. 
11.  The  home  is  wherever  the  heart  is.  12.  Your  friend  is 
whoever  needs  your  help.     12.  The  belief  is  that  he  is  guilty. 

Objects:  1.  He  saw  me.  2.  I  saw  her.  3.  I  like  him. 
4.  He  loves  to  study.  5.  She  learned  to  think.  6.  He  said, 
"  Come  here,  John."  7.  I  believe  that  every  one  is  the  archi- 
tect of  his  own  fortune. 


94  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

In  the  following  sentences  the  pupil  will  pick  out  (1)  the 
verb-term;  (2)  the  complement  or  object;  (3)  if  the  verb- 
term  is  completed  by  an  attribute  (complement),  he  will 
show  that  it  refers  to  the  subject ;  (4)  if  the  verb-term  is 
completed  by  an  object  (complement),  he  will  explain  that 
it  shows  what  the  action  expressed  by  the  verb  affects. 

1.  He  is  industrious. 

2.  She  seems  impatient. 

3.  He  seeks  fame. 

4.  The  teacher  said,   ' '  To-morrow  I  shall  explain  this  principle 
more  fully." 

5.  He  is  in  doubt. 

6.  God  said,  "Let  there  be  light." 

7.  His  purpose  was  to  surprise  the  enemy. 

8.  John  became  studious. 

9.  Learn  to  economize  the  value  of  time. 

10.  Franklin  said,  "Take  care  of  your  dimes,  dollars  will  take  care 
of  themselves." 

11.  Believe  that  man  is  immortal. 

12.  To  purloin  is  to  steal. 

13.  Another  mistake  in  relation  to  happiness  is  that  we  make  pro- 
vision only  for  the  present  world. 

14.  That  letter  is  h. 

15.  The  question  is,  who  will  put  the  bell  on  the  dog. 

16.  "  Talent  is  something,  but  tact  is  everything." 

17.  The  tree  is  tall. 

18.  He  was  my  friend. 

19.  He  ordered  the  soldiers  to  march. 

20.  The  order  was  to  march  at  once. 

21.  To  obey  is  to  enjoy. 

22.  His  desire  is  to  obey. 

23.  He  likes  to  obey. 

24.  The  velvet  feels  smooth. 

25.  I  am  in  a  hurry. 


TEST   QUESTIONS.  95 

Test  Questions. — Sentence-Making. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  word  copula  in  grammar  ? 

2.  In  what  important  respect  does  a  copula  verb  differ 
from  an  attributive  verb  ? 

3.  In  how  many  ways  may  the  complement  of  a  verb 
refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence  ? 

4.  What  does  the  adjective  complement  denote? 

5.  In  each  of  three  simple  sentences,  use  a  different  ad- 
jective complement,  word-form. 

6.  In  each  of  two  simple  sentences,  use  an  adjective 
complement,  phrase-form. 

7.  What  does  a  noun  complement  denote  ? 

8.  In  the  first  of  three  sentences,  use  a  noun  comple- 
ment, word-form ;  in  the  second,  a  noun  complement,  phrase- 
form  ;  in  the  third,  a  noun  complement,  clause-form. 

9.  In  the  first  of  three  sentences,  use  a  noun-term,  word- 
form,  as  the  object  of  a  verb  ;  in  the  second,  use  a  noun- 
term,  phrase-form,  as  the  object  of  a  verb  ;  in  the  third,  use 
a  noun-term,  clause-form,  as  the  object  of  a  verb. 

10.  Introduce  an  adjective  complement  with  in,  with  of. 

11.  Introduce  a  noun  complement,  clause-form,  with  that, 

with  where,  with  how. 

12.  Use  as  objects  of  verbs  clauses  introduced  by  that, 

where,  with,  how. 

13.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  a  different  attributive 
verb,  and  show  that  each  verb  is  equal  in  meaning  to  copula 
and  complement. 

14.  Show  that  the  complement  of  a  copula  verb  is  the 
significant  predicate  element. 

15.  State  the  difference  between  the  noun  complement  of 
a  copulative  verb  and  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 


EXERCISE    XIII. 

Peculiar  Uses  of   Nouns  and  Adjectives. 

A  word  has  a  peculiar  use  when  it  varies,  in  construction, 
from  its  usual  classification,  meaning,  or  relation. 

1.  A  noun  so  related  to  a  verb  as  to  show  to  whom  or 
for  whom  an  act  was  performed  is  called  an  indirect  object; 
as,  1.  He  gave  his  son  a  watch.  2.  Please  find  Mary  a  bet- 
ter pen.     3.  He  made  the  captain  a  hat. 

2.  A  noun  so  related  to  the  object  of  a  verb  as  to  de- 
scribe it,  is  called  an  objective  attribute;  as,  1.  They  chose 
her  queen.     2.  He  called  him  a  coward. 

3.  A  noun  used  like  an  adverb  to  denote  time,  distance, 
value,  weight,  etc.,  is  called  an  adverbial  objective;  as,  1.  He 
waited  an  hour.  2.  He  walked  a  mile.  3.  The  coal  weighed 
a  ton.    4.  The  fish  was  worth  a  dollar. 

4.  A  noun  used  as  the  object  of  an  intransitive  verb  is 
called  a.  cognate  object;  as,  1.  He  looked  a  last  look.  2.  He 
ran  a  race.     3.  He  dreamed  a  dream. 

5.  A  noun  used  with  a  participle  and  known  as  the 
nominative  absolute  is  the  subject  of  an  abridged  adverbial 
clause  ;  as,  1.  The  battle  being  over,  the  army  was  disbanded. 
When  the  battle  was  over,  the  army  was  disbanded.  2.  The 
rain  having  ceased,  we  resumed  our  journey.  When  the 
rain  had  ceased,  we  resumed  our  journey. 

1.  An  adjective  joined  to  a  verb  that  expresses  condition 
or  motion  modifies  both  the  subject  and  the  predicate,  and 

96 


PECULIAR    USES   OF   NOUNS   AND   ADJECTIVES.        97 

is  called  an  adverbial,  predicate  adjective;  as,  1.  He  came 
running.    2.  He  died  shouting.    3.  The  sun  shines  bright. 

2.  An  adjective  joined  to  a  verb  in  such  a  way  as  to 
qualify  the  direct  object  of  the  verb  is  called  an  objective 
attribute;  as,  1.  She  wiped  the  dishes  dry.  2.  He  painted 
the  house  red.     3.  He  made  the  stick  straight. 

3.  An  adjective  that  follows  the  noun  it  describes  is 
called  an  appositive  adjective;  as,  1.  She,  dying,  gave  it  to 
me.     2.  The  man,  beaten,  fled. 

4.  An  adjective  is  often  used  as  a  noun ;  as,  1.  The 
brave  deserve  the  fair.  2.  Choose  the  true,  the  beautiful, 
and  the  good. 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  This  is  the  proper  place  to 
construe  other  unusual  expressions  found  in  the 
■writings  of  distinguished  authors.  Require  the 
pupils  to  give  the  construction  of  the  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses  printed  in  italics  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1.  Come. 

2.  The  man  was  without  power  to  move. 

3.  The  clouds  hang  heavy  and  low. 

4.  The  milk  seems  sour. 

5.  Jack  has  worn  his  shoes  thin. 

6.  They  elected  him  mayor. 

7.  She  came  to  the  house  weeping. 

8.  Peter,  the  hermit,  lived  in  a  cave. 

9.  I  am  glad  of  it. 

10.  While  away  your  time. 

11.  The  doctors  pronounced  the  disease  incurable. 

12.  As  the  tree  falls,  so  it  must  lie. 

13.  Tenderly  her  blue  eyes  glistened,  long  time  ago. 

14.  He  is  sorry  for  what  he  has  done. 

15.  She  wrings  the  clothes  dry. 

7 


98  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

16.  The  owl  is  a  nocturnal  bird,  pursuing  its  prey  by  night  and 
sleeping  during  the  daytime. 

17.  To  carry  care  to  bed  is  to  sleep  with  a  pack  on  your  back. 

18.  There  Honor  comes,  a  pilgrim  gray, 

To  deck  the  turf  that  wraps  their  clay. — Collins. 

19.  The  Spartans  called  their  slaves  Helots. 

20.  I  found  the  urchin,  Cupid,  sleeping. 

21.  0  strong  hearts  and  true  !  not  one  went  back  in  the  ' '  Mayflower. ' 1 

22.  Silently,  one  by  one,  in  the  infinite  meadows  of  heaven, 
Blossomed  the  lovely  stars,  the  forget-me-nots  of  the  angels. 

23.  The  ruby-throated  humming-bird — the  loveliest  one  of  the  whole 
family — is  a  native  of  the  Southern  States. 

24.  Blessed  is  he  who  has  found  his  work  ;  let  him  ask  no  other 
blessedness. — Carlyle. 

25.  Up  rose  old  Barbara  Frietchie  then 

Bowed  with  her  four  score  years  and  ten. —  Whittier. 

26.  The  soldiers  nicknamed  Jackson  "  Old  Hickory." 

27.  To  hear  is  to  learn. 

28.  He  ran  a  mile. 

29.  Seeing  is  believing. 

30.  Stars  shine  on. 

31.  He  made  the  captain  a  coat. 

32.  Seeing  a  crowd  in  the  street,  he  ran  to  the  door. 

33.  The  spider,  spinning  his  web,  was  an  inspiration  to  Bruce. 

34.  The  man,  resting  by  the  roadside,  found  a  purse. 

35.  On  the  quarter-deck  of  the  flag-ship  stood  Admiral  Sir  John 
Narborough,  the  first  seaman  in  all  England. 

36.  He  was  elected  President  of  the  United  States. 

37.  My  little  family  were  gathered  around  a  charming  fire,  telling 
stories  of  the  past  and  laying  schemes  for  the  future. 

38.  See  here,  my  son. 

39.  To  retreat  was  difficult ;  to  advance,  impossible. 

40.  Firing  a  gun  is  dangerous  sometimes. 

41.  The  sun  appears  to  beat  in  vain  at  the  casements. 

42.  I  wished  to  enter  college  and  hoped  to  receive  aid  from  my  uncle, 

43.  Who  has  not  heard  the  crying  of  children? 

44.  This  is  the  factory  where  my  brother  works. 


TEST    QUESTIONS.         '       /'■'•,  ;.,  ,;  R*9&  \\\ 

45.  The  prisoner  was  sent  back  to  the  place  whence  he  came. 

46.  Many  are  called,  but  few  are  chosen. 

47.  Which  one  do  you  want? 

48.  He  gave  his  son  a  book. 

49.  John,  shut  the  door. 

50.  Loving  is  living. 

51.  I  want  him  £o  ^o  Aorae. 

52.  Grant,  £Ae  silent  raan,  was  a  great  general. 

53.  Earth's  highest  station  ends  in,  "Here  he  lies.'''' 

Test  Questions. — Sentence-Making. 

1.  When  has  a  word  a  peculiar  use  ? 

2.  In  how  many  ways  may  a  noun  be  related  to  a  verb  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  objective  attribute  f 

4.  Show  that  a  noun  used  as  the  indirect  object  of  a 
verb  is  really  the  object  of  a  preposition  understood. 

5.  What  is  meant  by  cognate  object  f     Illustrate. 

6.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  a  noun  as  the  indirect 
object  of  a  verb. 

7.  Use  a  noun  as  an  objective  attribute. 

8.  Use  a  noun  as  an  adverbial  objective. 

9.  Use  a  noun  as  a  cognate  object. 

10.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  a  noun  as  an  absolute 
nominative,  and  show  that  a  noun  so  used  is  the  subject  of 
an  abridged,  adverbial  clause. 

11.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  an  adjective  to  modify 
both  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

12.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  an  adjective  as  an 
objective  attribute. 

13.  Use  two  adjectives  appositively. 


EXERCISE   XIV. 

Verbals. — Infinitives. — Participles. 

Besides  the  inflected  and  asserting  forms  of  the  verb 
already  given,  there  are  two  kinds  of  words  called  verbals 
derived  from  every  principal  verb.  They  are  not  really 
verbs,  because  they  do  not  assert  anything ;  they  merely 
express  action  in  a  general  way.  They  are  used  as  nouns 
and  adjectives,  and  are  called  infinitives  and  participles. 

Infinitives. 

An  infinitive  is  the  form  of  a  verb  having  the  properties 
of  a  noun  and  a  verb. 

Infinitives  are  verbal  nouns, — that  is,  they  have  the  con- 
struction of  nouns  ;  as,  1.  To  do  good  was  his  aim.  2.  He 
likes  to  read  Latin.  3.  Walking  is  good  exercise.  4.  Seeing 
is  believing. 

Infinitives  are  of  two  classes, — root  infinitives  and  parti- 
cipial infinitives. 

The  root  infinitive  is  the  simplest  form  of  the  verb ; 
as,  love,  live,  go,  work. 

The  participial  infinitive  ends  in  ing" ;  as,  loving,  living, 
going,  working. 

Infinitives,  like  finite  verbs,  may  take : 

1.  Adverbial  modifiers;  as,  Resolve  to  live  honorably. 

We  expect  to  start  in  the  morning.     We  intend  to  go  when 

our  friends  arrive. 
100 


INFINITIVES.  ]  (XI, 

2.  Objects ;  as,  To  help  others  is  a  duty.  The  man  seems 
to  believe  what  he  says. 

3.  Complements ;  as,  The  boy  seems  to  be  studious. 
His  one  desire  is  to  become  a  soldier. 

An  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  as  : 

1.  The  subject  of  a  verb  ;  as,  To  err  is  human.  To  watch 
him  is  his  duty. 

2.  The  object  of  a  verb ;  as,  We  wish  to  study  geog- 
raphy.    Learn  to  labor  and  to  wait. 

3.  The  complement  of  a  copulative  verb ;  as,  To  see 
is  to  believe.     All  we  want  is  to  be  set  free. 

4.  An  adjective  ;  as,  A  desire  to  learn  is  commendable. 
Air  to  breathe  is  a  necessity. 

5.  An  adverb;  as,  He  studied  to  learn.  I  Avas  sorry 
to  miss  him. 

6.  The  object  of  a  participle;  as,  Fearing  to  start,  we 
waited  too  long.  The  mother,  trying  to  rescue  her  child, 
lost  her  own  life. 

NOTE. — An  infinitive  phrase  used  as  the  object 
of  a  participle  has  the  construction  of  an  abstract 
noun  in  the  objective  case. 

7.  The  object  of  a  preposition ;  as,  He  is  about  to  join 
the  army.     He  is  willing  to  do  anything  but  (to)  work. 

NOTE. — An  infinitive  phrase  used  as  the  object 
of  a  preposition  has  the  construction  of  an  abstract 
noun  in  the  objective  case. 

8.  In  apposition  with  a  noun  ;  as,  Delightful  task  !  to  rear 
the  tender  thought.     A  wise  decision — to  decide  impartially. 

NOTE. — An  infinitive  phrase  is  in  apposition  with 
a  noun  when  it  means  the  same  thing  as  the  noun. 


102  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 

9.  With  an  assumed  subject,  as  the  object  of  a  verb ; 
as,  We  expected  him  to  come. 

NOTE. — The  simple  infinitives  include  the  root 
of  the  verb,  called  the  root  infinitive,  and  the  infini- 
tive ending  in  ing,  called  the  participial  infinitive; 
as,  Root-infinitives:  give,  have,  be;  Participial  infini- 
tives: giving,  having,  being. 

Participles. 

A  participle  is  the  form  of  a  verb  having  the  properties 
of  an  adjective  and  a  verb. 

Participles  are  verbal  adjectives — that  is,  they  have  the 
construction  of  adjectives ;  as,  1.  The  man,  skating  on  the 
ice,  is  my  brother.  2.  He  has  a  library  filled  with  rare  books. 
3.  John,  having  recited  all  his  lessons,  went  to  the  country. 

There  are  two  participles, — the  present  participle  and  the 
past  participle. 

The  present  participle  ends  in  ing;  as,  I  saw  a  man 
walking  in  the  meadow.  People,  living  in  a  busy  city,  long 
for  a  quiet  country  home. 

The  past  participle  ends  in  d,  n,  or  t ;  as,  John,  having 
recited  his  lesson,  went  to  the  country.  Having  been  driven 
from  home,  he  enlisted  in  the  army.  He,  having  slept  too 
late,  missed  the  train. 

A  compound  participle  consists  of  being,  having,  or 
having  been,  and  a  present  or  past  participle  placed  after  it ; 
as,  Caesar,  having  sent  forward  his  cavalry,  followed.  Having 
finished  his  speech,  he  sat  down. 

Participles  are  often  used  as  attributive  adjectives;  as, 
Her  charming  voice  captured  the  audience. 


PARTICIPLES.  103 

A  participle  may  be  used  as  a  simple  predicate  adjective  ; 
as,  He  is  fatigued.     He  is  deserted. 

NOTE. — A  simple  participle  used  as  a  predicate 
adjective  does  not  form  with  the  verb  a  verb-phrase, 
but  is  a  predicate  adjective  merely,  and  should  be 
parsed  like  any  other  qualifying  adjective. 

Participles  are  often  used  as  nouns ;  as,  He  spoke  of  the 
living  and  the  dead;  the  tempted  and  the  tried;  the  lost, 
buried,  and  forgotten. 

A  participle,  in  its  appropriate  use,  takes  the  place  of  an 
adjective  clause ;  as, 

And  children  coming  home  from  school 
Look  in  at  the  open  door. 

And  children  that  come  home  from  school  look  in  at  the 

open  door. 

Up  rose  old  Barbara  Frietchie  then, 
Bowed  with  her  fourscore  years  and  ten. 

Then  up  rose  old  Barbara  Frietchie,  who  was  bowed  with 
her  fourscore  years  and  ten. 

The  attributive  complement  of  a  participle  qualifies  the 
word  that  the  phrase  limits ;  as,  Being  tired,  I  decline. 
Having  been  ill,  he  was  unable  to  go. 

The  substantive  complement  of  a  participle  is  in  apposi- 
tion with  the  noun  that  the  phrase  limits  ;  as,  John,  being 
a  hero,  saved  the  child.  He,  having  been  a  merchant,  took 
an  invoice,  or  account  of  stock. 

A  participle  may  do  the  work  of  both  an  adjective  and 
an  adverb  in  the  same  sentence ;  as,  He  came  to  the  house 
crying.     The  tree  stands  firmly  rooted  in  the  soil. 


104  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Participles  may  take : 

1.  Adverbial  modifiers;  as,  Walking  rapidly,  he  soon 
completed  his  journey.  Reading  without  reflection  profits  us 
little.     The  steamer  is  lying  where  we  saw  it  yesterday. 

2.  Objects ;  as,  Expecting  to  see  you,  I  did  not  write. 
Having  stated  that  Grant  won  the  battle,  he  retired. 

3.  Complements ;  as,  Being  sleepy,  I  retired  early.  John, 
being  a  hero,  did  his  duty. 

A  participle  may  be  used  with  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the 
absolute  construction ;  as,  The  signal  being  given,  the  class 
was  excused.  The  weather  permitting,  we  shall  go  home 
to-morrow. 

A  participle,  or  a  participial  phrase,  may  be  used  as  an 
adjective ;  as,  We  visited  a  ruined  castle.  Running  water 
does  not  stagnate.  The  garrison,  expecting  reinforcements, 
refused  to  surrender. 

The  participial  infinitive  and  the  infinitive  with  to  have, 
in  part,  the  same  uses.  Both  may  be  used  (1)  as  the 
subject  of  a  verb ;  as,  Seeing  is  believing.  To  see  is  to 
believe ;  (2)  as  the  object  of  a  verb ;  as,  He  likes  travelling. 
He  likes  to  travel;  (3)  as  the  complement  of  a  copulative 
verb  ;  as,  Seeing  is  believing.     To  see  is  to  believe. 

NOTE. — "When  derived  from  a  transitive  verb, 
the  infinitive  in  ing  can  govern  an  object,  and  is  then 
called  a  gerund.  It  is  the  same  in  form  as  the  imper- 
fect participle,  but  the  two  are  entirely  unlike  in  use ; 
the  participle  is  a  verbal  adjective,  and  the  gerund 
is  a  verbal  noun. 

On  account  of  their  twofold  nature  and  manifold  uses, 
verbals  are  regarded  as  the  most  difficult  subjects  treated 
in  grammar.     It  must  be  remembered  that  an  infinitive  is 


PARTICIPLES.  105 

a  verb-noun,  a  participle,  a  verb-adjective.  These  forms 
are  nouns  and  adjectives  derived  from  verbs.  An  infinitive 
expresses  in  noun-form  the  act  that  the  verb  asserts ;  as, 
He  gives  ;  gives  expresses  an  assertion,  but  the  action  itself 
is  expressed  by  the  phrasal  infinitive  to  give  or  by  the  parti- 
cipial infinitive  giving.  It  is  clear  that  to  give  and  giving  are 
the  names  of  actions,  hence  they  are  nouns. 

A  participle  has  the  signification  of  a  verb,  but  the  con- 
struction of  an  adjective ;  as,  We  found  him  lying  on  the 
ground.  Lying  has  the  signification  of  a  verb,  but  is  used 
as  an  adjective.  We  will  now  illustrate  the  most  impor- 
tant uses  of  these  two  derivative  words.  A  careful  study 
of  this  Exercise  should  make  every  construction  of  infini- 
tives and  participles  clear. 

Infinitives. — The  infinitive  or  verb-noun  has  three  forms  : 
1.  The  form  without  the  sign  to  ;  as,  I  ivork.  2.  The  phrasal 
form  with  the  sign  to  ;  as,  To  work  is  a  duty.  3.  The  form 
in  ing  ;  as,  Working  is  honorable. 

The  phrasal  infinitive  may  be  used  to  complete  the 
meaning  of  nouns,  adjectives,  verbs,  and  adverbs.  In  these 
uses  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  complementary  infinitive  and 
parsed  or  construed  as  a  unit.  It  is  the  complement  to  the 
word  it  limits  ;  as,  1.  Mary  came  to  see  us.  2.  He  rejoiced 
to  hear  of  it.  3.  Give  me  something  to  eat.  4.  Henry  has 
a  fine  horse  to  sell.  5.  She  was  glad  to  see  you.  6.  He  is 
ready  to  start.  7.  John  was  not  strong  enough  to  lift  if. 
8.  He  came  too  late  to  catch  the  train. 

The  phrasal  infinitive,  preceded  by  a  noun  or  a  pronoun 
in  the  objective  case,  forms  with  the  noun  or  the  pronoun 
a  substantive  phrase.  The  whole  group  may  be  regarded 
as  the  object  of  the  verb,  or  the  noun  or  the  pronoun  may 


106  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

be  regarded  as  the  grammatical  object  and  the  infinitive  as 
a  complementary  infinitive  ;  as,  1.  He  invited  John  to  come. 
2.  I  asked  him  to  go.  In  1,  John  to  come  is  the  logical 
object ;  John  the  grammatical  object ;  to  go  the  comple- 
mentary infinitive.  In  2,  him  to  go  is  the  logical  object ; 
to  go  the  complementary  infinitive.  3.  I  want  him  to  be 
good.  To  be  joins  the  adjective  good  to  him,  the  word 
which  the  adjective  limits.  4.  I  wish  him  to  become  a 
lawyer.  To  become  joins  the  noun  lawyer  to  the  pronoun 
him,  with  which  it  is  in  apposition.  Logically  the  analysis 
is  complete  when  we  say  that  I  is  the  subject,  wish  the 
verb,  and  him  to  become  a  lawyer  the  object.  5.  He  appears 
to  be  contented.  To  be  contented  is  the  complement  of  the 
copulative  verb  appears.  Contented  is  used  as  a  predicate 
adjective,  joined  to  He  by  appears  to  be.  6.  He  desires  me 
to  be  fashionable.  To  be  joins  fashionable  to  the  pronoun 
me,  the  word  which  fashionable  limits.  Or  regard  to  be  as 
the  complementary  infinitive  limiting  me.  7.  We  are  about 
to  close  this  lesson.  The  infinitive  phrase,  to  close  this  les- 
son, is  the  object  of  the  preposition  about.  8.  It  is  profitable 
to  read  good  books.  The  infinitive  phrase,  to  read  good 
books,  is  the  logical  subject  of  the  sentence,  it  being  merely 
the  representative  subject. 

The  infinitive  noun  in  ing  may  be  limited  by  a  noun  or 
a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case ;  as,  I  was  surprised  at 
John's  being  absent.  I  have  no  faith  in  his  keeping  his 
promise.  It  may  be  used  wholly  as  a  noun  with  the  pre- 
ceding and  of  following  it ;  as,  The  reading  of  the  verdict 
required  an  hour. 

Participles. — The  participle,  or  verb-adjective,  as  a  verb 
expresses  action,  as  an  adjective  it  limits  a  noun  or  its 


PARTICIPLES.  107 

equivalent.  A  few  examples  should  make  these  facts  clear. 
1.  Seeing  the  boy  fall,  I  picked  him  up.  Seeing  is  used  as 
an  adjective  and  as  a  verb.  As  an  adjective  it  modifies  I; 
as  a  verb  it  takes  the  object  boy.  2.  I  saw  a  man  walking 
in  the  garden.  Walking  is  used  as  an  adjective  and  as  a 
verb ;  as  an  adjective  it  limits  man ;  as  a  verb  it  is  modi- 
fied by  the  adverbial  phrase  in  the  garden.  3.  I  felt  my 
heart  beating  faster.  Beating  is  the  objective  complement 
modifying  heart.  Faster  tells  how  his  heart  beats,  hence 
it  is  an  adverb  of  manner. 

The  possessive  case  should  be  used  with  the  participle 
where  possession  is  denoted ;  as,  "  There  is  no  question 
in  regard  to  Mr.  Lowe's  having  received  a  majority  of 
the  votes."  Not,  "  There  is  no  question  in  regard  to  Mr. 
Lowe  having  received  a  majority  of  the  votes."  Again, 
"  The  man's  having  been  seriously  injured  prevented  him 
coming  to-day." 

The  present  participle  is  used  in  the  progressive  form  of 
the  verb ;  as,  The  farmer  is  ploughing  the  field ;  the  past 
participle  in  the  perfect  form  of  the  verb ;  as,  The  farmer 
had  ploughed  the  field ;  the  passive  participle  in  the  passive 
form  of  the  verb  ;  as,  The  field  was  ploughed  by  the  farmer. 

NOTE. — Verbals  do  not  have  definite  tense  sig- 
nification. They  show  the  act  as  indefinite,  progres- 
sive, or  perfected.  They  assert  action  in  a  general 
way  without  limiting  the  action  to  any  time,  or  as- 
serting it  of  any  subject.  They  express  tense  as 
present,  past,  or  future  relatively  to  the  time  of  the 
principal  verb. 

In  order  to  distinguish  the  present  participle  from  the 
participial  infinitive,  the  infinitive  ending  in  ing,  we  must 


108  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

remember  that  the  former  is  used  in  the  sense  of  an  adjec- 
tive, the  latter  in  the  sense  of  a  noun  ;  as,  1.  People,  living 
in  cities,  often  long  for  the  quiet  of  a  country  home.  2.  He 
finds  no  pleasure  in  living.  In  sentence  1,  living  is  used  as 
an  adjective  ;  in  sentence  2,  living  is  used  as  a  noun.  Use, 
not  form,  determines  the  part  of  speech  to  which  a  word 
belongs  in  a  given  sentence. 

Parsing. 

In  parsing  an  infinitive,  tell  (1)  whether  it  is  simple  or 
participial;  (2)  its  principal  parts;  (3)  its  coyistruction, 
whether  nominative  or  objective,  with  reason. 

MODEL  I. — To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant.  To  see  is  a 
simple,  present  infinitive,  transitive.  Principal  parts, 
see,  saw,  seen,  and  is  used  as  a  noun,  subject  of  the 
proposition. 

MODEL  II. — I  like  to  see  the  sun.  To  see  is  a  simple, 
present  infinitive,  transitive.  Principal  parts,  see,  saw, 
seen,  and  is  used  as  a  noun,  object  of  the  verb  like. 

MODEL  HI. — He,  hoping  to  be  healed  of  the  disease, 
went  to  Hot  Springs,  Arkansas.  To  be  healed  is  an 
infinitive  phrase,  present,  passive  infinitive  of  the 
verb  heal.  Principal  parts,  heal,  healed,  healed.  It  is 
used  as  a  noun,  object  of  the  participle  hoping. 

MODEL  IV. — Walking  is  good  exercise.  Walking  is 
a  participial  infinitive,  present,  active,  intransitive. 
Principal  parts,  walk,  walked,  walked.  It  is  used  as  a 
noun,  subject  of  the  proposition. 

Parse  the  infinitives  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  I  prefer  to  walk. 

2.  I  do  not  seem  to  understand  you. 

3.  I  swore  never  to  reveal  the  hiding-place. 

4.  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy. 


PARSING.  109 

5.  Pardon  my  asking  if  you  like  to  read. 

6.  I  begin  to  understand  you. 

7.  We  believed  the  story  to  be  false. 

8.  We  suppose  it  to  be  him. 

9.  And  fools,  who  came  to  scoff,  remained  to  pray. 

10.  It  is  wiser  for  us  to  make  the  attempt  alone. 

11.  I  knew  him  to  be  a  fraud. 

12.  To  love  is  to  live. 

13.  I  am  about  to  close  this  recitation. 

14.  Why  stay  we  on  earth  except  to  grow? 

In  parsing  a.  participle  tell  (1)  whether  it  is  simple  or  com- 
pound, present  or  past,  active  or  passive;  (2)  the  verb  from 
which  it  is  formed,  with  principal  parts  of  the  verb  ;  (3)  the 
construction. 

MODEL  I. — Immured  in  cypress  shades  a  sorcerer 
dwells.  Immured  is  a  simple,  passive  participle  from 
the  verb  immure.  Principal  parts,  immure,  immured,  im- 
mured, and,  like  an  adjective,  it  limits  sorcerer. 

MODEL  II. — Having  lost  the  game,  the  players  dis- 
banded. Having  lost  is  a  compound  participle,  perfect 
or  past  of  the  verb  lose.  Principal  parts,  lose,  lost,  lost. 
It  is  used  as  an  adjective  qualifying  the  noun  players. 

MODEL  m. — John,  having  been  called,  went  to  the 
front.  Having  been  called  is  a  compound  participle, 
passive,  from  the  verb  call.  Principal  parts,  call, 
called,  called.  It  is  used  as  an  adjective  qualifying  the 
noun  John. 

Parse  the  participles  in  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Here  are  letters  announcing  his  return. 

2.  The  rain  came  pouring  down  in  torrents. 

3.  His  having  been  absent  makes  it  difficult  for  him  to  keep  up. 

4.  Being  occupied  with  very  important  matters,  he  had  no  leisure 
to  see  us. 

5.  We  used  to  live  in  the  adjoining  house,  fronting  the  park. 


110  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

6.  Our  guest,  offering  assistance,  was  accepted  among  the  number. 

7.  Having  been  driven  from  home,  he  enlisted  in  the  army. 

8.  During  the  storm,  we  saw  an  oak  shattered  by  a  thunderbolt. 

9.  He,   stooping  down,    and   looking  in,    saw  the   linen  clothes 
lying,  yet  went  he  not  in. 

10.  Being  convinced  of  his  guilt,  we  resolved  to  punish  him. 

11.  Having  declined  the  proposal,  I  went  away. 

12.  By  consulting  the  best  authorities,  he  became  learned. 

13.  The  souFs  dark  cottage,  battered  and  decayed, 

Lets  in  new  light  through  chinks  that  time  has  made. 

Test  Questions. — Sentence-Making. 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  The  sentence-making  exer- 
cises should  cover  only  the  most  important  uses  of 
the  grammatical  terms.  There  are  some  things  in 
grammar  that  every  one  must  know,  in  order  to  ex- 
press his  thoughts  concisely  and  clearly.  There  are 
many  unimportant  things  -which  should  be  passed 
in  the  grammar  grades,  for  details  confuse  and  dis- 
courage young  pupils.  The  sentence-making  tests 
compel  the  pupil  to  review  the  text,  to  study  the 
illustrative  examples,  and  privileges  the  teacher  to 
keep  comparatively  quiet  during  the  recitation. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  word  infinitive  in  grammar? 

2.  Why  are  infinitives  called  verbal  nouns  ? 

3.  Into  how  many  classes  are  infinitives  divided  ? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  root  infinitive  f 

5.  Why   may   infinitives   take   modifiers,   objects,  and 
complements? 

6.  What  is  meant  by  the  word  participle  f 

7.  How  many  kinds  of  participles  are  there  ? 

8.  How  does  the  present  participle  end? 

9.  How  does  the  past  participle  end  ? 

10.  What  is  a  compound  participle  ?     Illustrate. 


TEST-QUESTIONS.  HI 

11.  State  concisely  and  clearly  the  distinguishing  differ- 
ence between  a  finite  verb  and  an  infinitive. 

12.  State  concisely  and  clearly  the  distinguishing  differ- 
ence between  a  participle  and  a  verb. 

13.  Use  a  phrasal  infinitive  (1)  as  the  subject  of  a  verb  ; 
(2)  as  the  object  of  a  verb ;  (3)  as  the  complement  of  a 
copulative  verb  ;  (4)  as  an  adjective  ;  (5)  as  an  adverb. 

14.  Use  an  infinitive  in  ing  (1)  as  the  subject  of  a  verb ; 
(2)  as  the  object  of  a  verb ;  (3)  as  the  complement  of  a 
copulative  verb. 

15.  Show  that  a  phrasal  infinitive  may  be  the  logical 
subject  of  a  verb  with  it  as  the  anticipative  subject. 

16.  Show  that  a  phrasal  infinitive  may  be  in  apposition 
with  a  noun. 

17.  Show  that  the  phrasal  infinitive  and  the  infinitive  in 
ing  are  frequently  interchangeable. 

18.  Show  that  the  infinitive  in  ing  and  the  present  par- 
ticiple are  alike  in  form,  but  unlike  in  use. 

19.  Show  that  a  phrasal  infinitive  may  be  the  object  of 
a  preposition. 

20.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  a  participial  phrase 
as  an  adjunct  of  the  subject  of  a  verb. 

21.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  a  different  form  of  the 
noun-term  as  the  object  of  a  participle. 

22.  In  each  of  three  sentences,  use  a  different  form  of  the 
adverb-term  as  a  modifier  of  a  participle. 

23.  In  each  of  two  sentences,  use  an  adjective  as  the  com- 
plement of  a  participle  and  point  out  its  use  in  the  phrase. 

24.  In  each  of  two  sentences,  use  a  noun  as  the  comple- 
ment of  a  participle  and  point  out  its  use  in  the  phrase. 


EXERCISE   XV. 

Varied  Uses  of  Words. 

This  is  a  convenient  place  to  review  the  uses  of  several 
puzzling  words  that  have,  at  different  times,  the  force  of  two 
or  more  different  parts  of  speech.  In  English  a  word  does 
not  belong  exclusively  to  a  single  class  or  part  of  speech. 
The  part  of  speech  to  which  a  word  belongs  in  a  particular 
sentence  depends  upon  its  use  in  that  sentence.  That  is, 
the  same  form  of  a  word  may  be  used  as  several  parts  of 
speech.  The  master-key  that  unlocks  every  profitable  sys- 
tem of  teaching  grammar  is  therefore,  not  because.  What 
part  of  speech  a  word  is  cannot  be  determined  at  sight,  but 
only  by  its  connection  and  dependence.  A  pupil  should 
be  taught  first  to  see  what  a  word  does  in  the  sentence, 
then  to  infer  what  part  of  speech  it  is. 

In  the  sentence,  "  Black  is  a  color,"  the  word  black  is  the 
subject  of  the  sentence,  therefore  it  is  a  noun.  In  the  sen- 
tence, "  John  is  a  black  boy,"  the  word  black  limits  a  noun, 
therefore  it  is  an  adjective.  In  the  sentence,  "  Black  my 
shoes,"  the  word  black  expresses  action,  therefore  it  is  a 
verb.  Almost  any  part  of  speech  may  be  used  as  a  verb. 
Thus,  man  is  a  verb  in  the  sentence,  "  Man  the  boat.  Up, 
usually  a  preposition,  is  a  verb  in  the  sentence,  "  Up  with 
the  flag."  Black,  usually  an  adjective,  is  a  verb  in  the  sen- 
tence, "  Black  your  shoes."  While,  usually  an  adverb,  is  a 
verb  in  the  sentence,  "  While  away  the  time." 

112 


VARIED    USES    OF    WORDS.  113 

The  following  brief  survey  of  the  words  most  widely 
used  as  two  or  more  parts  of  speech  shows  that  use  decides 
classification : 

All.  All  may  be  (1)  a  noun ;  as,  He  lost  all.  (2)  An 
adjective  ;  as,  All  men  are  mortal.  (3)  An  adverb  ;  as,  His 
cheeks  were  all  pale. 

As.  As  may  be  (1)  a  relative  pronoun ;  as,  Such  as  I 
have,  give  I  unto  thee.  (2)  A  conjunctive  adverb  of  time; 
as,  I  arrived  as  he  was  taking  his  leave.  (3)  A  conjunctive 
adverb  of  manner ;  as,  Speak  as  you  think.  (4)  An  adverb 
of  degree  ;  as,  You  are  as  old  as  I  am.  (5)  A  preposition ; 
as,  His  place  as  a  thinker  is  difficult  to  fix.  (6)  Part  of  a 
phrase  ;  as,  As  to  that  matter,  he  was  silent. 

Both.  Both  may  be  (1)  an  adjective  ;  as,  Both  methods 
are  good.  (2)  A  correlative  conjunction ;  as,  He  is  both 
virtuous  and  wise. 

But.  But  may  be  (1)  a  conjunction ;  as,  He  is  not  sick, 
but  faint.  (2)  A  preposition  ;  as,  They  gave  all  but  one.  (3) 
an  adverb  ;  as,  If  they  kill  us,  we  shall  but  die.  (4)  A  rela- 
tive pronoun ;  as,  There  is  no  sailor  but  is  superstitious. 
This  means  there  is  not  a  sailor  who  is  not  superstitious. 

Considering'.  Considering  may  be  (1)  a  participle ;  as, 
Loudon  carefully  considering  the  offer  decided  to  accept  it. 

(2)  A  preposition  ;  as,  Considering  the  difficulties,  the  jour- 
ney was  quickly  made.  (3)  A  gerund ;  as,  His  time  wTas 
occupied  with  considering  the  affairs  of  state. 

No.  No  may  be  (1)  a  limiting  adjective  ;  as,  He  had  no 
more  money.     (2)  An  adverb ;  as,  He  is  there  no  longer. 

(3)  An  independent  adverb  ;  as,  Aro,  I  will  never  consent. 

8 


114  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Only.  Only  may  be  (1)  an  adjective  ;  as,  The  only  lesson 
heard  was  reading.  (2)  An  adverb ;  as,  I  wrote  only  to 
amuse  myself.  (3)  A  conjunction  ;  as,  It  is  the  right  kind, 
only  it  is  too  small. 

So.  So  may  be  (1)  an  adverb  of  manner ;  as,  Do  it  so. 
(2)  A  subordinate  conjunction ;  as  So  he  can  gain  his  point, 
he  does  not  care.  (3)  A  substitute  for  an  expression ;  as, 
I  am  in  earnest,  but  he  is  more  so  =  in  earnest. 

That.  That  may  be  (1)  a  relative  pronoun  ;  as,  The  man 
that  I  met  was  the  teacher.  (2)  An  adjective  pronoun  ;  as, 
That  is  what  I  mean  ;  (3)  An  adjective  ;  as,  That  book  be- 
longs to  me.  (4)  A  substantive  conjunction ;  as,  I  knew 
that  he  would  soon  retire.  (5)  A  conjunction  of  purpose ; 
as,  He  died  that  we  might  live. 

"What.  What  may  be  (1)  a  relative  pronoun ;  as,  It  is 
what  (that  which)  I  wanted.  (2)  An  interrogative  pronoun  ; 
as,  What  (things)  do  you  want?  (3)  An  interrogative 
adjective  ;  as,  What  excuse  does  she  make?  (4)  An  inter- 
jection ;  as,  What !  Have  you  come  at  last  ? 

Which.  Which  may  be  (1)  a  relative  pronoun  ;  as,  The 
horse  which  I  rode.  (2)  An  interrogative  pronoun ;  as, 
Which  did  you  take?  (3)  An  interrogative  adjective;  as, 
Which  horse  did  you  buy  ? 

Yet.  Yet  may  be  (1)  an  adverb  ;  as,  The  deed  was  made 
yet  darker  by  his  profession  of  friendship.  (2)  A  coordi- 
nate conjunction  ;  as,  "  Yet  I  say  unto  you  that  even  Solo- 
mon in  all  his  glory  was  not  arrayed  like  one  of  these." 

As — As  denotes  a  comparison  of  equality ;  as,  John  is 
as  old  as  William  (is  old).     The  first  as  modifies  old,  hence 


VARIED    USES   OF    WORDS.  115 

it  is  an  adverb.     The  second  as  introduces  a  subordinate 
clause,  hence  it  is  a  conjunction. 

So — As  denotes  a  comparison  of  inequality  ;  as,  John  is 
not  so  old  as  William  (is  old).  In  this  sentence  so  modifies 
the  adjective  old,  hence  it  is  an  adverb.  As  introduces  a 
subordinate  clause,  hence  it  is  a  conjunction. 

Phrase    Combinations. 

Certain  phrases  or  combinations  become  idiomatic  and 
practically  inseparable.  Their  meaning  and  force  are  lost 
in  trying  to  separate  or  analyze  them.  To  study  and  accept 
these  idiomatic  forms  is  far  more  useful  than  to  try  to  adjust 
every  word  to  its  proper  class  and  rule  of  construction. 
Even  classical  scholars  and  technical  grammarians  do  not 
always  agree  upon  the  classification  and  construction  of 
peculiar  and  idiomatic  expressions.  The  difference  in 
opinion  in  regard  to  the  case  of  a  noun  is  often  of  small 
moment,  but  it  is  very  important  that  the  use  of  the  word 
or  expression  should  be  clearly  understood.  The  difference 
between  tweedle  dum  and  ticeedle  dee  is  not  a  vital  one. 

The  following  are  the  most  important  combinations  : 

1.  A  noun  with  a  verb;  as,  The  steak  eats  well.  The 
sentence  reads  well.  In  each  of  the  foregoing  sentences  the 
verb  is  used  passively.  In  a  similar  way  we  have  the  pro- 
gressive form;  as,  The  house  is  building.  Potatoes  are 
selling  high. 

2.  A  double  object,  a  noun  and  an  adjective;  as,  Lay 
the  head  low.  Drink  the  cup  dry.  Bake  the  bread  brown. 
Plough  the  furrow  deep.  In  the  foregoing  it  is  clear  that 
the  adjective  is  an  attributive  object. 


116  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.  An  adjective  with  a  verb  ;  as,  He  walks  lame.  He  came 
late.  Here  the  adjectives  clearly  belong  to  the  subjects,  but 
modify  the  verbs. 

4.  A  preposition  with  a  verb  ;  as,  He  should  act  up  to  the 
contract.  I  want  to  go  over  with  him.  If  taken  alone  the 
preposition  is  an  adverb ;  if  joined  to  the  verb  as  part  of 
the  verb-term,  the  term  is  a  unit. 

5.  A  preposition  with  a  p>reposition,  a  preposition  phrase, 
not  a  prepositional  phrase  ;  as,  He  went  over  and  over  the 
lesson.  By  and  by  he  will  do  better.  We  looked  through 
and  through  the  book.  These  are  inseparable  adverbial 
phrases  ;  they  are  units  and  cannot  be  analyzed. 

6.  A  pi^eposition  with  an  adjective  ;  as,  In  vain  he  tried  to 
solve  the  problem.  At  first  I  believed  he  would  win  the 
prize.  At  least  he  deserves  our  thanks.  The  foregoing 
are  inseparable  adverbial  phrases. 

7.  Two  or  more  prepositions  without  a  conjunction  ;  as,  He 
came  out  into  the  yard.  He  went  up  to  within  a  foot  of  the 
stove.  Regard  the  first  preposition  as  an  adverb.  Occa- 
sionally both  prepositions  must  be  regarded  as  adverbs  ;  as, 
The  rules  must  be  lived  up  to.  The  whole  subject  was 
gone  over  ivith.  These  adverbs  must  be  regarded  as  units. 
There  is  no  law  of  language  that  forbids  closing  a  sentence 
with  a  preposition. 

8.  Two  or  more  conjunctions^  an  inseparable  conjunction 
phrase  ;  as,  "  Now  when  these  things  were  first  ordained, 
the  priests  went  always  into  the  first  tabernacle."  uNor 
yet  that  he  should  offer  himself  often." 


EXERCISE   XVI. 

The   Sentence.  —  Subject.  —  Predicate.  —  Principal, 
Subordinate,  and  Independent  Elements. 

Sentence. 

Every  sentence,  however  long,  logically  has  but  two  parts, 
— a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

Subject. 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  the  part  about  which  some- 
thing is  said ;  as,  1.  The  laws  of  nature  are  the  thoughts  of 
God.  2.  Helping  others  helps  ourselves.  3.  That  the  earth 
is  round  is  admitted. 

Predicate. 

The  predicate  of  a  sentence  is  the  part  that  expresses 
what  is  said  about  the  subject;  as,  1.  The  laws  of  nature 
are  the  thoughts  of  God.  2.  Helping  others  helps  ourselves. 
3.  That  the  earth  is  round  is  admitted. 

The  bare  or  grammatical  subject  of  a  sentence  is  the 
word  that  denotes  the  person  or  the  thing  about  which 
some  assertion  is  made ;  as,  The  laws  of  nature  are  the 
thoughts  of  God.  2.  The  birds  of  this  region  will  return  in 
the  spring.  3.  The  pupils  of  this  class  who  are  attentive 
will  improve. 

The  bare  or  grammatical  predicate  is  the  predicate  verb 
or  verb-phrase  that  expresses  what  is  asserted  of  the  sub- 
ject ;  as,  1.  The  laws  of  nature  are  the  thoughts  of  God.     2. 

117 


118  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  birds  of  this  region  ivill  return  in  the  spring.     3.  He 
should  have  gone  on  the  morning  train. 

The  bare  or  grammatical  subject  together  with  its  modi- 
fiers is  called  the  complete  or  logical  subject ;  as,  1.  The  real 
difference  between  men  is  energy.  2.  The  oil  in  the  lamp 
mounts  high  in  the  wick.  3.  The  moaning  of  the  jwisoners 
who  are  in  the  penitentiary  was  heard  at  midnight. 

The  bare  or  grammatical  predicate  together  with  its  com- 
plement and  modifiers  is  called  the  complete  or  logical  predi- 
cate; as,  1.  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate. 
2.  The  young  man  likes  to  work.  3.  He  was  a  very  distin- 
guished American  orator. 

Principal  Elements. 

The  principal  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  parts  that 
make  the  unqualified  assertion;  as,  1.  The  blue  face  of 
ocean  smiled.  2.  The  blind  poet  to  whom  he  referred  was 
Milton.     3.  A  small  leak  may  sink  the  largest  ship. 

Subordinate  Elements. 

The  subordinate  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  modi- 
fiers of  the  principal  elements  ;  as,  1.  The  blue  face  of  ocean 
smiled.     2.   TJie  blind  poet  to  whom  he  referred  was  Milton. 

Independent  Elements. 

The  independent  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  words 
and  phrases  that  are  not  grammatically  related  to  the  sen- 
tence with  which  they  stand ;  as,  1.  James,  hear  me.  2.  I 
think,  my  dear  old  friend,  you  are  wrong.  3.  You  know, 
come  what  may,  I  will  not  forget  you.  4.  Religion,  who  can 
doubt  it,  is  the  noblest  of  themes. 


THE   SENTENCE.  119 

1.  Classify  the  following  sentences.  State  kind:  (1)  with 
regard  to  use  ;  (2)  with  regard  to  structure. 

2.  Pick  out  (1)  the  bare  subject ;  (2)  the  bare  predicate  ; 
(3)  the  unqualified  assertion ;  (4)  the  complete  or  logical 
subject ;  (5)  the  complete  or  logical  predicate. 

3.  Pick  out  (1)  the  modifiers  of  the  subject ;  (2)  the 
modifiers  of  the  predicate. 

4.  Pick  out  the  independent  elements  and  tell  why  they 
are  independent. 

1.  The  human  heart  refuses  to  believe  in  a  universe  without  a 
purpose. — Kant. 

2.  To  neglect  the  education  of  the  country  boys  and  girls  is  to  in- 
vite a  terrible  national  danger. — Richard  Edwards. 

3.  Now  the  bright  morning  star,  day's  harbinger,  comes  dancing 
from  the  east. — Shakespeare. 

4.  It  is  irrational  to  pass  by  the  moral  and  religious  nature  of 
children  in  our  scheme  of  education. — Newton  Bateman. 

5.  When  you  doubt,  abstain. — Zoroaster. 

6.  Earth's  highest  station  ends  in,  "  Here  he  lies." 

7.  A  friend  is  a  person  with  whom  I  may  be  sincere. — Emerson. 

8.  Truth  is  the  property  of  no  individual,  but  is  the  treasure  of  all 
men .  — Emerson. 

9.  That  you  have  been  deceived  is  clear. 

10.  Things  are  not  what  they  seem. 

11.  The  fact  that  he  was  beaten  could  not  be  denied. 

12.  You  must  study  diligently,  if  you  would  succeed. 

13.  Help  me,  Cassius,  or  I  will  sink. 

14.  Be  quiet !  there  is  no  danger. 

15.  The  teacher,  smiling  slightly,  corrected  my  mistake. 

16.  The  lioness  when  hungry  will  watch  noisily  for  her  prey. 

17.  After  long,  heavy  rains  some  rivers  become  so  high  that  they 
overflow  their  banks. 

18.  When  she  passed,  it  seemed  like  the  ceasing  of  exquisite  music. 


120  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

19.  The  house  standing  on  the  hill  is  rented. 

20.  They  that  are  whole  need  not  a  physician. 

21.  By  the  way,  I  saw  your  friend  yesterday. 

22.  Thy  rod  and  thy  staff,  they  comfort  me. 

23.  We  were  sitting  by  the  window  when  the  clock  struck  nine. 

24.  Where  he  is  buried  has  never  been  discovered. 

25.  It  is  a  strange  thing  how  little  people  know  about  the  sky. 

Test  Questions — Sentence-Making. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  elements  of  a  sentence? 

2.  How  are  the  elements  of  sentences  classified  ? 

3.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  principal  elements  ? 

4.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  subordinate  elements  f 

5.  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  independent  elements  f 

6.  What  is  meant  by  complete  or  logical  subject  f 

7.  What  is  meant  by  complete  or  logical  predicate  f 

8.  Compose  a  sentence  whose  subject  is  modified  by  a 
word,  a  phrase,  a  clause. 

9.  Compose  a  sentence  whose  predicate  is  modified  by 
a  word,  a  phrase,  a  clause. 

10.  Compose  sentences  whose  predicates  consist  (1)  of 
a  copulative  verb  and  an  adjective  ;  (2)  of  a  copulative  verb 
and  a  noun. 

11.  Compose  sentences  whose  predicates  consist  (1)  of 
a  copulative  verb  and  a  phrase  ;  (2)  of  a  copulative  verb 
and  a  clause. 

12.  Compose  sentences  whose  predicates  consist  (1)  of 
a  transitive  verb  and  its  object  (word-form) ;  (2)  of  a  tran- 
sitive verb  and  its  object  (phrase-form) ;  (3)  of  a  transitive 
verb  and  its  object  (clause-form.) 


EXERCISE    XVII. 

Twelve  Rules  of  Syntax. 

Syntax  is  that  part  of  grammar  which  treats  of  the  con- 
struction of  sentences  and  the  proper  arrangement  of  words 
in  sentences.  It  treats  of  the  agreement,  government,  and 
position  of  the  elements  of  a  sentence. 

Agreement  is  the  similarity  of  the  parts  of  speech  in 
their  properties  ;  as,  a  plural  noun  and  a  plural  verb  are 
said  to  agree  in  number  ;  a  masculine  pronoun  referring  to 
a  noun  of  the  masculine  gender  as  its  antecedent  is  said  to 
agree  with  it  in  gender. 

Government  is  the  power  that  some  parts  of  speech  are 
said  to  have  in  determining  the  properties  of  others ;  as,  a 
preposition  requires  its  object  to  be  in  the  objective  case; 
a  transitive  verb  requires  that  its  object  shall  be  in  the 
objective  case  ;  a  plural  subject  demands  a  plural  verb. 

Position  is  the  place  that  words  properly  occupy  with 
respect  to  other  words  of  the  sentence. 

This  general  agreement,  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  state- 
ment, is  called  a  Rule  of  Syntax.  In  English  there  are 
comparatively  few  changes  in  form  to  denote  agreement. 
The  construction  of  the  sentence  depends,  not  upon  word- 
forms,  but  upon  the  laws  of  order  and  reason.  A  few 
general  principles  govern  the  grammatical  construction  of 
the  words  in  a  sentence.     Of  these,  the  following  ten  are 

the  most  important : 

121 


122  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  Experience  proves  that  a 
formal,  memory  knowledge  of  the  rules  ■which  gov- 
ern the  use  of  pure  English  will  not  dislodge  the  use 
of  incorrect  constructions  and  verbose  and  careless 
expressions.  The  use  of  correct  forms  becomes  a 
habit  only  through  long  and  persistent  effort  of  the 
will.  No  amount  of  parsing  and  analysis  will  ma- 
terially change  the  forms  used  in  expressing  origi- 
nal thought.  Revision  is  the  only  sure  remedy  for 
incorrect  and  indirect  statements. 

Rule  I.    The  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person 
and  number. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  using  a  plural  verb  with  every 
one,  each,  any  one. 

Violation.       Every  one  we  knew  were  going. 
Correction.     Every  one  we  knew  was  going. 

It  is  violated  by  using  a  plural  verb  with  a  subject  plural 
in  form  but  singular  in  meaning. 

Violation.       The  news  have  arrived. 
Correction.     The  news  has  arrived. 

Rule   II.    The   subject   of  a  finite   verb  is  in   the 
nominative  case. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  using  the  objective  case  after  as 
or  than. 

Violation.       You  knew  this  as  well  as  me. 
Correction.     You  knew  this  as  well  as  I  (did). 

Rule  III.    Two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected 
by  and  require  a  plural  verb. 

Violation.       Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man. 
Correction.     Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. 


TWELVE   RULES   OF   SYNTAX.  123 

Rule  IV.    Two  or  more  singular  subjects  connected 
by  or  or  nor  require  a  singular  verb. 

Violation.      John  or  Mary  were  in  the  wrong. 
Correction.     John  or  Mary  was  in  the  wrong. 

Violation.       Neither  he  nor  she  were  invited. 
Correction.     Neither  he  nor  she  was  invited. 

Correct  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  He  or  his  brother  are  guilty  of  the  theft. 

2.  Neither  John  nor  James  walk  to  school. 

3.  The  man  or  his  brother  sleep  in  the  parlor. 

4.  Neither  the  husband  nor  his  wife  call  at  the  office. 

Rule  V.    A  pronoun  used  as  the  subject  of  a  verb 
is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Violation.       Him  and  me  went  to  the  theatre  together. 
Correction.     He  and  I  Avent  to  the  theatre  together. 

Correct  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  He  is  taller  than  me. 

2.  She  is  further  advanced  than  him. 

3.  She  is  not  one  whom  I  thought  would  do  this. 

4.  Why  won't  father  answer  as  well  as  me? 

5.  You  and  me  will  go  together. 

6.  They  that  seek  wisdom  will  be  wise. 

7.  Is  James  as  old  as  me  ? 

8.  Whom  do  you  think  called  upon  me  this  morning  ? 

9.  My  brother  is  a  better  swimmer  than  him. 
10.  Such  a  man  as  him  could  never  be  President. 

Rule  VI.     Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents 
in  person,  number,  and  gender. 

This  rule  is  often  violated  by  using  a  plural  pronoun  in 
referring  to  each,  any  one,  and  every  one. 


124  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Violation.       Every  one  should  attend  to  their  own  business. 
Correction.     Every  one  should  attend  to  his  own  business. 

Correct  the  following  examples  : 

1.  Not  a  boy  of  the  entire  class  knew  their  own  name. 

2.  If  any  pupil  present  is  in  favor  of  this,  let  them  hold  up  their 
right  hand. 

3.  Every  one  was  looking  out  for  themselves. 

4.  Each  of  the  five  children  had  a  present  to  take  to  their  home. 

5.  When  he  shoots  a  partridge,  a  woodcock,  or  a  pheasant,  he 
gives  them  away. 

6.  Each  was  the  centre  of  their  own  world. 

Rule  VII.  An  adverb  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, or  another  adverb. 

This  rule  is  often  violated  by  using  an  adjective  in  place 
of  an  adverb. 

Violation.       He  recited  perfect  to-day. 
Correction.     He  recited  perfectly  to-day. 

Violation.      Deal  gentle  with  him. 
Correction.      Deal  gently  with  him. 

Examine  carefully  the  following  sentences  and  think  the 
adverbs  into  their  proper  places  : 

1.  All  that  glitters  is  not  gold. 

2.  We  cannot  deprive  any  one  of  merit  wholly. 

3.  We  have  been  disappointed  greatly  at  your  conduct. 

4.  We  always  should  prefer  duty  to  pleasure. 

5.  The  planets  are  in  motion  perpetually. 

6.  They  are  nearly  dressed  alike. 

7.  He  used  to  often  come  ;  I  wished  to  really  know  him. 

The  adverb  is  more  frequently  misplaced  than  any  other 
part  of  speech.  The  most  troublesome  adverb  is  "  only." 
The  use  of  this  adverb  deserves  particular  attention. 


TWELVE    RULES   OF   SYNTAX.  125 

Violation.       I  only  have  five  dollars  on  hand. 
Correction.     I  have  only  five  dollars  on  hand. 

The  adverb  should  be  placed  before  the  adjective,  the 
adverb,  and  the  phrase  which  it  modifies.  It  may  be 
placed  before  or  after  the  verb;  as,  1.  I  have  only  three 
apples  left.  2.  They  were  dressed  nearly  alike.  3.  He 
left  early  in  the  morning.     4.  He  walked  slowly  to  town. 

Rule  VIII.  The  object  of  a  verb,  a  participle,  or  a 
preposition  is  in  the  objective  case. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  using  the  nominative  case- form 
of  a  pronoun  instead  of  the  objective. 

Violation.       Who  did  you  see  yesterday  ? 
Correction.     Whom  did  you  see  yesterday  ? 

Violation.       Who  did  you  intend  this  for? 
Correction.     Whom  did  you  intend  this  for  ? 

Correct  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Who  did  he  marry? 

2.  Who  should  I  find  but  my  cousin  ? 

3.  Will  you  let  him  and  I  sit  together  ? 

4.  They  that  help  us  we  should  reward. 

5.  He  that  made  the  last  speech  the  audience  cheered. 

Rule  IX.  A  predicate  pronoun  agrees  in  case  with 
the  subject  which  it  qualifies. 

This  rule  is  violated  by  using  the  objective  case-form  of 
the  pronoun  instead  of  the  nominative. 

Violation.       It  is  me. 
Correction.     It  is  I. 

Violation.       They  were  them. 
Correction.     They  were  they. 


126  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Correct  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  I  understood  it  was  her. 

2.  Whom  do  you  think  I  am  ? 

3.  That  it  was  him  no  one  can  doubt. 

4.  It  may  have  been  her. 

5.  It  surely  must  be  them. 

6.  Probably  it  will  be  me  that  he  will  call  next  time. 

7.  Here  they  come  !     Yes,  those  are  them. 

8.  I  think  it  is  them. 

Rule  X.     Adjectives  qualify  nouns. 

This  rule  is  frequently  violated  by  using  an  adverb  to 
qualify  a  noun. 

Violation.       He  appears  very  handsomely  in  his  costume. 
Correction.     He  appears  very  handsome  in  his  costume. 

Rule  XI.  A  noun  expressing  measure  or  time  is  in 
the  objective  case  with  an  adverbial  value. 

That  is,  it  is  an  adverbial  objective  ;  as,  1.  He  waited  an 
hour  =  for  an  hour.  2.  He  died  last  night  =  during  the 
night.     3.  The  pole  was  five  feet  long  =  in  length. 

Rule  XII.  A  noun  used  to  explain  or  identify  an- 
other noun  is  in  the  same  case  by  apposition. 

That  is,  a  noun  used  to  describe  another  noun  has  the 
logical  value  of  an  adjective  clause ;  as,  Peter,  the  hermit, 
lived  in  a  cave.  Peter,  who  was  a  hermit,  lived  in  a  cave. 
Virginia  was  named  in  honor  of  Elizabeth,  the  virgin  queen. 
Hermit  is  in  the  nominative  case  ;  queen,  in  the  objective. 


EXERCISE    XVIII. 
Ten  Things  to  be  avoided  in  Construction. 

In  this  manual  we  have  space  in  which  to  refer  to  a  few 
of  the  graver  errors  which  are  found  in  newspaper  and 
magazine  articles  of  to-day. 

I. — Avoid  unnecessary  repetitions. 

This  caution  is  intended  to  guard  young  writers  against 
needless  repetition  (1)  of  the  same  word ;  (2)  of  the  same 
idea.  To  repeat  frequently  the  same  word  or  the  same 
idea  is  to  confess  to  the  use  of  a  very  limited  vocabulary 
and  a  scarcity  of  ideas.  Repetition,  however,  is  not  always 
censurable.  Emphasis  may  require  a  repetition  of  the  same 
word  or  the  same  idea. 

II. — Avoid  misapplication. 

By  misapplication  is  meant  using  words  either  with  a 
wrong  meaning  or  in  a  wrong  connection. 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  Require  the  pupil  to  substi- 
tute the  proper  word  for  each  word  printed  in  italic 
in  the  folio-wing-  sentences : 

1.  I  have  bought  the  balance  of  the  books. 

2.  We  had  ten  pear-trees  ;  neither  of  them  lived. 

3.  Which  of  these  ten  pencils  will  you  take  ?  I  will  not  take  either 
of  them. 

4.  He  had  less  fruit  trees  than  his  neighbor. 

5.  It  did  not  hurt  me  any. 

6.  If  you  will  not  go  to  me,  I  shall  come  to  you. 

127 


128  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

7.  I  expect  that  some  of  the  boys  broke  the  sled. 

8.  Let  him  do  like  I  do. 

9.  The  teacher  learned  the  pupils  arithmetic. 
10.  Do  you  love  strawberries  ? 

III. — Omit  unnecessary  words. 

TO  THE  PUPIL :  The  use  of  unnecessary  -words 
is  very  common  with  young-  writers.  You  should 
carefully  review  what  you  write  and  strike  out 
every  word  that  does  not  add  to  the  thought.  Every 
unnecessary  word  weakens  the  statement.  The 
habit  of  using  superfluous  words  and  incorrect  forms 
of  expression  can  be  dislodged  only  in  one  way,— by 
revising  your  expressions,  whether  oral  or  written. 
Habit  yields  only  to  a  fixed  purpose  and  a  methodi- 
cal and  persistent  effort.  "What  is  called  genius  is 
often  the  product  of  great  labor. 

TO  THE  TEACHER:  If  most  of  the  time  now 
spent  in  many  schools  in  reciting  the  facts  of  gram- 
mar were  spent  in  expressing  original  thought,  it 
would  not  be  long  until  the  average  high  school 
graduate  could  write  a  correct  application  for  a  sit- 
uation, or  express,  in  ten  words,  a  ten-word  mes- 
sage. He  cannot  do  it  now,  although  he  has  studied 
text-book  grammar  for  years.  He  has  declined 
nouns  and  pronouns,  conjugated  verbs,  compared 
adjectives  and  adverbs,  imprisoned  sentences  in 
diagrams,  but  still  he  cannot  correctly  describe  an 
event  nor  state  a  fact  in  clean,  concise  English.  No 
amount  of  memory  cramming,  no  amount  of  formal 
blank-filling,  no  amount  of  mere  recitation  of  gram- 
matical definitions  and  rules  will  materially  aid 
pupils  in  giving  clear  expression  to  their  own 
thoughts.  Pupils  learn  to  write  only  in  one  way,— by 
writing.  Parsing  and  analysis  may  serve  them  in- 
directly,— the  former,  by  way  of  fixing  what  little 
there  is  of  inflection  and  form ;  the  latter,  by  way  of 
exhibiting  the  structure  of  sentences. 


TEN    THINGS   TO   BE   AVOIDED.  129 

This  caution  is  violated  in  the  following  sentences : 

Violation.       A  second  round  was  fired  again. 
Correction.     A  second  round  was  fired. 

Violation.        Before  you  write  you  must  think  what  to  say. 
Correction.      Before  you  write,  think  what  to  say. 

Examples  for  Correction. 

1.  He  indorsed  his  name  on  the  back  of  the  check. 

2.  Every  man  on  the  face  of  the  earth  has  duties  to  perform. 

3.  He  looked  for  mistakes  through  the  whole  essay,  but  could 
find  none. 

4.  The  last  picture  was  a  very  beautiful  one. 

5.  She  very  seldom  has  her  grammar  lesson. 

6.  The  last  three  months  have  brought  an  abundant  plenty  of  rain. 

7.  When  will  the  balloon  ascend  up  ? 

8.  Seaport  towns  on  the  Atlantic  coast  are  the   great  marts   for 
selling  Western  produce. 

9.  Thought  and  expression  act  and  react  upon  each  other  mutually. 

10.  The  ancient  Romans  wore  a  long,  loose,  untrammelled  robe, 
which  they  called  a  toga. 

11.  He  gave  us  a  glowing  description  of  his  descent  down  into  a 
coal-mine  near  Pittsburg,  Pa. 

12.  For  the  first  time  he  gazed  upon  the  limitless  expanse  of  the 
boundless  prairie. 

13.  It  is  the  universal  desire  of  all  in  the  grammar  class  to  have 
a  half-holiday. 

14.  Did  you  ever  see  that  poor,  old,  widow  woman? 

15.  By  the  Portuguese  law  every  person  is  legally  obliged  to  join 
the  army. 

Improve  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Persons  who  are  inclined  to  be  quarrelsome  are  usually  de- 
spised. 

2.  When  he  heard  of  the  very  dangerous  position  in  which  we 
were  placed,  he  hastened  at  once  to  our  relief. 

9 


130  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.  Have  you  read  ' '  Little  Men' '  ?     It  was  written  by  Louisa  Alcott. 

4.  George  Washington  always  acted  with  courage. 

5.  A  river  of  great  width  had  to  be  crossed. 

6.  Bring  forth  the  goblet  of  gold. 

7.  To  scale  the  wall  was  a  task  of  great  difficulty. 

8.  A  man  who  has  courage  will  not  desert  his  friends. 

9.  A  fox  that  does  not  keep  awake  catches  no  poultry. 

10.  A  man  who  often  loses  his  temper  is  an  unpleasant  companion. 

11.  He  went  to  the  war  against  his  will. 

12.  He  described  the  scene  with  great  eloquence. 

13.  He  went  to  the  city  on  purpose  to  see  Admiral  Dewey. 

IV. — Avoid  improper  arrangement. 

Errors  in  syntax  often  arise  from  an  improper  arrange- 
ment of  the  elements  of  the  sentence.  The  elements  of  a 
sentence  should  be  so  placed  as  to  render  their  relation  and 
meaning  unmistakable.  "  As  the  relation  of  one  word  or 
group  of  words  to  another  is  most  frequently  determined  in 
English,  not  by  the  form  of  the  word  but  by  its  position, 
it  follows  that  a  very  large  part  of  the  syntax  of  our  lan- 
guage depends  upon  the  order  of  words.1" 

In  the  natural  order  of  words  in  a  sentence,  the  subject, 
preceded  by  word  modifiers  and  followed  by  phrase  and 
clause  modifiers,  is  placed  first,  next  the  predicate  verb, 
followed  by  its  object  or  complement  and  modifiers.  A 
sentence  that  can  be  made  to  mean  more  than  one  thing  is 
not  good  English. 

This  caution  is  violated  in  the  following  sentences : 

Violation.      The  earth  appears  to  be  flat  on  the  map. 
Correction.     On  the  map  the  earth  appears  to  be  flat. 

Violation.      I  saw  a  man  digging  a  ditch  with  a  Roman  nose. 
Correction.     I  saw  a  man  with  a  Roman  nose  digging  a  ditch. 


TEN   THINGS   TO    BE   AVOIDED.  131 

Violation.  I  took  a  book  from  the  library  which  had  never  been 
read. 

Correction.  I  took  from  the  library  a  book  which  had  never  been 
read. 

Examples  for  Correction. 

1.  Susan  found  a  diamond  ring,  assorting  rags. 

2.  A  pearl  was  found,  by  a  sailor,  in  a  shell. 

3.  A  boy  was  killed,  with  long  hair,  by  a  shot  from  a  rifle. 

4.  A  gentleman  called  from  Germany  to  pay  his  respects. 

5.  He  examined  the  deed  that  was  handed  him  with  great  interest. 

6.  Henry  saw  the  procession  pass  the  house,  standing  in  the  yard. 

7.  The  enraged  man  smothered  the  child  seizing  a  bolster. 

8.  Wanted  a  man  to  work  on  a  farm,  with  no  bad  habits. 

9.  James  found  a  pocket-book  crossing  the  street  near  the  curb- 
stone. 

10.  Some  clothes  were  given  to  a  ragged  boy  made  of  woollen  goods. 

11.  In  one  evening  I  saw  twenty-seven  meteors  sitting  on  my  piazza. 

12.  Take  a  tablespoonful  before  meals  undiluted. 

13.  People  ceased  to  wonder  by  degrees. 

14.  He  apologized  when  he  saw  his  mistake  like  a  gentleman. 

15.  To  man  has  been  given  the  power  of  speech  only. 

16.  The  bride  entered  with  her  father,  gowned  in  dainty  white  tulle. 

17.  He  was  only  able  to  go  as  far  as  Chicago. 

18.  He  was  only  successful  in  accomplishing  the  result  because  of 
hard  work. 

V. — Avoid  using  long,  involved,  complex  sentences. 

Long  sentences  are  a  fruitful  source  of  annoyance  to  the 
reader  and  the  cause  of  misunderstandings  and  law-suits. 
The  profoundest  thoughts  can  be  expressed  in  simple  words 
and  in  short  sentences.  For  proof  of  this  fact,  read  Pro- 
fessor Drummond's  sermon  on  "  Love,  the  Greatest  Thing- 
in  the  World,"  Rev.  Phillips  Brooks's  "  Symmetry  of 
Life,"  and  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount. 


132  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

VI. — Avoid  using  a  verb  in  the  wrong  number. 

Do  not  use  a  verb  in  the  plural  when  a  plural  adjunct  of 
the  subject  comes  between  a  singular  subject  and  its  verb. 
This  caution  is  violated  in  the  following  sentence : 

Violation.      A  succession  of  accidents  have  discouraged  him. 
Correction.     A  succession  of  accidents  has  discouraged  him. 


Examples  for  Correction. 

1.  The  energy  of  all  oppose  her. 

2.  Each  of  the  officers  were  suspected. 

3.  Nothing  except  disappointed  hopes  remain  to  them. 

4.  The  greater  part  of  the  members  were  opposed  to  him. 

5.  Caesar  with  his  veterans  have  conquered  Gaul. 

6.  The  encouragement  of  education  and  charity  were  the  chief 
objects  of  his  life. 

7.  Though  they  seemed  to  listen  with  great  attention,  not  one  of 
them  were  convinced. 

8.  Neither  of  the  parties  are  much  better. 

9.  The  derivation  of  these  words  are  uncertain. 

10.   To  these  belong  the  power  of  licensing  places  for  the  sale  of 
intoxicating  drinks. 


VII. — Avoid  improper  ellipsis. 

An  ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause 
that  is  necessary  to  complete  the  construction.  Depend- 
ent clauses  are  often  abbreviated  into  single  words  or 
phrases.     In  analysis  and  parsing,  supply  the  ellipsis. 

This  caution  is  violated  in  the  following  sentence  : 

Violation.       It  is  important  if  true. 
Correction.     It  is  important  if  it  is  true. 


TEN   THINGS   TO    BE    AVOIDED.  133 

Supply  the  ellipsis  in  each  of  the  following  sentences : 

1.  She  is  as  handsome  as  ever. 

2.  Love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 

3.  I  was  surprised  at  the  manner  he  received  it. 

4.  Solon  was  banished  his  country. 

5.  Your  friends  never  blame  you  for  making  short  credits  and  calls. 

6.  It  is  a  long  road  has  no  turning. 

7.  The  children  thought  one  way  ;  their  parents,  another. 

8.  A  topical  memory  makes  a  man  an  almanac  ;  a  talent  for  debate, 
a  disputant. 

NOTE. — The  words   omitted  as   truly  belong  to 
the  sentence  grammatically  as  the  words  expressed. 


Examples  for  Correction. 

1.  She  placed  me  near  the  desk  and  James  at  the  farther  end  of  the 
large  room. 

2.  He  never  has  succeeded  and  never  will. 

3.  It  is  not  so  easy  to  get  money  as  to  spend  it. 

4.  It  is  an  offence  that  does  not  admit  an  apology. 

5.  I  cannot  remember  one  of  his  statements. 

6.  He  is  still  in  the  situation  you  saw  him. 

7.  I  would  very  much  rather  live  with  an  honest  boor  than  a  false 
gentleman. 

VIII. — Avoid  solecisms. 

A  solecism  is  a  violation  of  grammatical  rules,  or  of  ap- 
proved idiomatic  usage,  any  impropriety,  a  monstrosity. 

The  writing  habit  of  the  average  business  man  and  the 
talking  habit  of  the  average  society  woman  are  in  a  large 
measure  determined  by  the  language  used  in  the  daily 
papers  and  monthly  magazines  which  they  read.  In  a 
popular  monthly  can  be  found  inaugurate  for  begin,  start, 
or  set  on  foot ;  splendid  for  excellent ;  witness  for  see  ;  stand- 


134  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

point  for  point  of  view ;  youths  for  boys  and  girls  ;  conflagra- 
tion for  fire  ;  elegant  for  delicious  (elegant  steak) ;  epistolary 
correspondence  for  letter-writing. 

IX. — Avoid  slang;. 

Slang  is  inelegant,  unauthorized  language,  consisting  of 
words  and  expressions  of  low,  illiterate  origin  and  use. 

Unfortunately  slang  is  much  used  in  newspaper  locals  and 
dime  novels.  It  is  the  dominant  language  of  cheap  saloons 
and  vaudeville  theatres.  Samples  :  Go  it,  boys.  Come  off. 
Cut  it.  Keep  your  eye  peeled.  He  is  a  hummer.  He  is  a 
dandy.     He  is  not  in  it.     She  is  a  stunner. 

X.— Avoid  the  unnecessary  repetition  of  and. 

That  is,  do  not  use  and  to  connect  irrelevant  sentences. 
This  caution  is  violated  in  the  following  paragraphs : 

"The  tiger  is  not  a  bold  hunter  and  he  does  not  chase  his  prey, 
and  he  hides  in  the  grass  by  the  roadside  and  in  ditches  near  drinking- 
places,  and,  like  the  cat,  he  waits  until  the  victim  is  near  enough  and 
then  pounces  suddenly  upon  it,  and  cattle  soon  learn  when  a  tiger  is 
about,  and  they  stay  in  the  open  meadows,  for  they  can  scent  him  a 
long  way  off,  and  they  keep  well  away  from  the  tall  reeds  and 
thickets.1 ' 

"There  is  a  kind  of  spider  that  is  called  the  mason  spider,  and  it 
builds  a  house  and  fixes  to  it  a  door,  and  the  door  opens  and  shuts  on 
a  hinge  like  the  lid  of  a  box,  and  this  spider  digs  a  hole  in  the  ground 
about  the  size  of  a  man's  finger,  and  lines  it  with  silk  of  its  own 
weaving  and  keeps  it  warm  and  dry,  and  it  makes  a  trap  door  of  wet 
earth  mixed  with  a  little  silk,  and  the  hinges  on  which  this  door  opens 
and  shuts  are  made  of  fine  silk  ;  and  then  there  is  another  kind  of 
spider,  called  the  geometrical  spider,  and  it  weaves  its  web  with  lines 
running  out  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  from  a  centre,  and  it  crosses 
these  with  regular  lines." 


EXERCISE    XIX. 

Transformation  of  Sentences. 

TO  TEACHER  AND  PUPIL:  Composing  is  the 
most  important  agency  in  developing  power  to 
think  and  in  acquiring  mastery  of  the  art  of  expres- 
sion. Next  in  value  to  composing  is  the  transfor- 
mation of  the  thoughts  of  others  into  equivalent 
expressions  of  our  own. 

A  parrot-like  knowledge  of  inflection  and  rules  has  ceased  to  be  the 
goal  of  linguists  in  scholarship,  and  so  far  as  any  useful  end  is  con- 
cerned, the  mere  ability  to  parse  and  analyze  an  intricate  sentence 
counts  but  little. — Professor  Huffcut,  Cornell  University. 

A  sentence  is  transformed  when  it  undergoes  a  change 
in  the  form  of  any  of  its  elements  without  material  change 
in  the  meaning. 

The  form  of  a  sentence  may  be  changed : 

I.  By  the  expansion  : 

1.  Of  words  into  phrases. 

2.  Of  words  into  clauses. 

3.  Of  phrases  into  clauses. 

4.  Of  phrases  into  independent  propositions. 

5.  Of  clauses  into  independent  propositions. 

II.  By  the  contraction  : 

1.  Of  independent  propositions  into  clauses. 

2.  Of  independent  propositions  into  phrases. 

3.  Of  clauses  into  phrases. 

4.  Of  clauses  into  words. 

5.  Of  phrases  into  words. 

135 


136  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Expansion. 

Simple  sentences  are  made  complex  : 

I.  By  expanding  words  into  clauses  ;  as, 

Every  great  and  original  action  has  a  prospective  greatness.  Every 
action  ivhich  is  great  and  original  has  a  prospective  greatness. 

II.  By  expanding  phrases  into  clauses  ;  as, 

1.  A  library  of  well-chosen  books  is  a  mine  of  useful  knowledge.  A  li- 
brary that  is  composed  of  well-chosen  boohs  is  a  mine  of  useful  knowledge. 

2.  Witnesses,  proving  his  innocence,  will  be  produced.  Witnesses 
who  will  prove  his  innocence  will  be  produced. 

3.  Cortes  came  to  Mexico  to  find  gold.  Cortes  came  to  Mexico  that 
he  might  find  gold. 

4.  Napoleon  being  exiled,  his  adherents  lost  hope.  When  Napoleon 
was  exiled  his  adherents  lost  hope. 

5.  They  desired  him  to  occupy  the  chair.  They  desired  that  he  should 
occupy  the  chair. 

Simple  sentences  are  made  compound  by  expanding 
phrases  into  independent  propositions  ;  as, 

The  oarsmen,  being  fatigued  with  their  difficult  journey,  lost  the  race. 
The  oarsmen  were  fatigued  with  their  difficult  journey,  therefore  they 
lost  the  race. 

Complex  sentences  are  made  compound  by  expanding 
clauses  into  independent  propositions  ;  as, 

When  gold  was  discovered  the  population  of  California  very  rapidly 
increased.  Gold  was  discovered,  and  the  population  of  California 
rapidly  increased. 

Contraction. 

Compound  sentences  are  made  complex  by  contracting 
independent  propositions  into  clauses  ;  as, 

He  spoke,  and  it  was  done.      When  he  spoke,  it  was  done. 


TRANSFORMATION    OF   SENTENCES.  137 

Compound  sentences  are  made  simple  by  contracting  in- 
dependent propositions  into  phrases  ;  as, 

The  people  were  industrious,  therefore  they  became  prosperous. 
Being  industriotis,  the  people  became  prosperous. 

Complex  sentences  are  made  simple : 

I.  By  contracting  clauses  into  phrases  ;  as, 

1.  If  he  perseveres,  he  will  undoubtedly  succeed.  By  persevering,  he 
will  undoubtedly  succeed. 

2.  The  seed  which  was  sown  on  wet  soil  did  not  grow.  The  seed, 
having  been  sown  on  wet  soil,  did  not  grow. 

3.  The  artist  hoped  that  he  would  gain  the  prize.  The  artist  hoped 
to  gain  the  prize. 

4.  Since  his  party  is  defeated,  he  will  not  be  appointed.  His  party 
being  defeated,  he  will  not  be  appointed. 

5.  I  believe  that  he  is  a  self-reliant  man.  I  believe  him  to  be  a  self- 
reliant  man. 

II.  By  contracting  clauses  into  words  ;  as, 

Pottery  that  is  made  in  Limoges  commands  a  high  price.  Limoges 
pottery  commands  a  high  price. 

Sentences  are  also  contracted  by  ellipsis  ;  as, 

1.  Huxley  was  a  great  scientist.  Darwin  was  a  great  scientist. 
Huxley  and  Darwin  were  great  scientists. 

2.  Peat  is  a  kind  of  fuel.  It  is  found  in  Ireland.  It  is  prepared 
for  use  by  drying  in  the  sun.  Peat,  a  kind  of  fuel  found  in  Ireland, 
is  prepared  for  use  by  drying  in  the  sun. 

3.  He  spoke  as  he  would  speak  if  he  were  inspired.  He  spoke  as  if 
inspired. 

I.  Expand  the  following  simple  sentences  into  equivalent 
complex  sentences : 


138  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

1.  Blessed  are  the  peacemakers. 

2.  We  saw  them  approaching  the  village. 

3.  We  rise  by  things  under  our  feet. 

4.  Finding  his  army  surrounded,  the  general  surrendered. 

5.  We  honor  the  brave. 

6.  Darkest  clouds  have  often  a  silver  lining. 

7.  The  shadow  of  the  earth  in  every  position  is  round. 

8.  The  conspirators  demanded  the  assassination  of  Csesar. 

9.  The  island,  being  a  coaling  station,  Avas  made  the  first  point  of 
attack. 

10.  Men  living  in  tropical  countries  soon  lose  their  energy. 

11.  He  did  not  wish  me  to  read  the  book. 

12.  The  Constitution  being  adopted,  the  assembly  adjourned. 

13.  Proceeding  up  the  canon,  we  found  many  beautiful  ferns. 

14.  Antony  spoke  to  arouse  the  populace. 

15.  Music  hath  charms  to  soothe  the  savage  breast. 

16.  The  river,  winding  like  a  silver  thread  around  the  mountains, 
could  be  seen  far  below. 

17.  The  trumpet  having  sounded,  the  battle  began. 

18.  The  majestic  rock  jutting  out  into  the  river  was  once  an  Indian 
stronghold. 

19.  He  wasted  his  time  over  unimportant  matters. 

20.  We  sat  until  sunset  watching  the  changing  light  on  the  still 
waters. 

II.  Expand  the  following  simple  or  complex  sentences 
into  equivalent  compound  sentences  : 

1.  When  Alexander  conquered  the  known  world,   he  sighed  for 
more  worlds  to  conquer. 

2.  The  French  possessions  east  of  the   Mississippi,    excepting  a 
small  district  around  New  Orleans,  were  ceded  to  England. 

3.  The  Indians  proving  hostile,  the  settlers  returned  to  their  start- 
ing-point. 

4.  The  Alamo,  which  was  so  long  besieged  by  the  Mexicans,  still 
stands  in  the  city  of  San  Antonio. 


TRANSFORMATION    OF    SENTENCES.  139 

5.  The  pound  of  flesh  which  I  demand  of  him  is  dearly  bought. 

6.  Sand-bars  having  obstructed  the  mouth  of  the  river,  jetties  were 
built  to  remove  them. 

7.  Homer,   the  greatest  poet  of  antiquity,    is  said  to   have   been 
blind. 

8.  The  Phoenicians,  who  were  daring  navigators,  made  many  voy- 
ages to  Britain. 

9.  The  public  roads,  beginning  at  the  Forum,  extended  in  every 
direction  throughout  the  empire. 

10.  Their  identity  being  unknown,  they  were  buried  in  one  grave 
at  Arlington. 

11.  Knowing  the  independent  spirit  of  the  colonists,  he  feared  to 
restrict  their  liberties. 

12.  Adverse  criticism,  which  often  disturbs  our  self-complacency, 
awakes  us  to  higher  ideals. 

13.  The  opening  of  new  factories  brought  increased  prosperity  to 
the  city. 

14.  Wandering  from  place  to  place,  she  vainly  sought  for  the  long- 
lost  Gabriel. 

15.  The  influence  of  a  good  man,  silently  making  itself  felt,  is  worth 
many  homilies. 

III.  Contract   the   following    compound   sentences    into 
equivalent  complex  or  simple  sentences  : 

1.  Do  your  work,  and  you  shall  reinforce  yourself. 

2.  Slaves  are  human  beings  ;  therefore  they  are  entitled  to  their 
liberty. 

3.  Live  as  though  life  were  earnest,  and  life  will  be  so. 

4.  Trust  men,  and  they  will  be  true  to  you. 

5.  Italy  bought  the  Bonaparte  papers,  and  they  were  deposited  in 
the  Royal  Library  at  Florence. 

6.  Resolve  to  see  the  world  on  the  sunny  side,  and  you  have  al- 
most won  the  battle  of  life  at  the  outset. 

7.  "  Falstaff"  is  one  of  Verdi's  greatest  operas,  yet  it  was  written 
in  his  old  age. 

8.  The  rain  beat  upon  him,  yet  he  continued  his  work. 


140  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

9.   The  trouble  cannot  be  cured,  therefore  it  must  be  endured. 

10.  The  waters  rose  rapidly,  and  before  morning  dawned  the  village 
had  been  swept  away. 

11.  He  published  an  account  of  the  voyage,  and  thus  gained  great 
renown. 

12.  Nature  is  an  inexhaustible  storehouse,  and  man  need  not  fear 
for  his  future  sustenance. 

13.  He  was  a  man  of  uncommon  ability,  yet  he  refused  to  devote 
his  talents  to  the  progress  of  the  nation. 

14.  The  city  was  under  martial  law,  and  the  two  men  narrowly 
escaped  arrest. 

IV.  Contract  the  following  complex  sentences  into  equiva- 
lent simple  sentences : 

1.  The  patriots  fought  that  they  might  gain  freedom. 

2.  Had  he  been  ambitious,  he  would  have  become  great  in  his 
profession. 

3.  When  the  nation  became  contented,  it  ceased  to  show  intellec- 
tual or  material  progress. 

4.  Books  should  not  be  judged  by  the  passages  which  are  brilliant. 

5.  The  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  become  colder  as  they  flow  north- 
ward. 

6.  Thoreau  chose  the  silent  woods  tbat  he  might  commune  with 
nature. 

7.  The  body,  which  was  mourned  by  a  nation,  was  that  of  the 
Emperor. 

8.  Since  the  medal  was  conferred  for  valor,  it  was  doubly  prized 
by  the  soldiers. 

9.  Johnson  declared  that  wit  consisted  in  finding  out  resemblances. 

10.  When  the  Confederates  were   defeated,    their  money   became 
absolutely  worthless. 

11.  Since  the  navy  of  England  was  powerful,  few  nations  engaged 
her  in  battle  on  the  sea. 

12.  It  is  just  that  he  shall  do  no  more  than  his  share. 

13.  When  a  man  has  not  a  good  reason  for  doing  a  thing,  he  has 
one  good  reason  for  letting  it  alone. 


TRANSFORMATION   OF   SENTENCES.  141 

14.  Every  law,  which  the  State  enacts,  indicates  a  fact  in  human 
nature. 

15.  They  believed  that  he  was  worthy  of  the  highest  honor. 

16.  I  dare  do  all  that  may  become  a  man. 

17.  Rejoice  not  when  thine  enemy  falleth. 

18.  If  we  ascend  the  table-land  of  Mexico,  we  find  the  climate  cool 
and  invigorating. 

19.  The  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbonic  acid  which  unite  to  form 
the  atmosphere,  are  mingled  in  unequal  proportions. 

20.  Bismarck,  who  is  often  called  the  "Iron  Chancellor,"  saw  his 
dream  of  an  empire  realized. 

21.  The  work  that  has  been  done  by  Edison  has  greatly  advanced 
the  science  of  electricity. 

22.  Who  friendship  with  a  knave  has  made, 
Is  judged  a  partner  in  the  trade. — Gay. 

23.  When  vice  prevails  and  impious  men  bear  sway, 
The  post  of  honor  is  a  private  station. — Addison. 

24.  It  is  no  excuse  for  a  fault  that  you  have  committed  it  for  the 
sake  of  a  friend. — Cicero. 

25.  Arms  are  of  little  value  abroad  unless  there  is  wisdom  at  home. 

26.  After  he    had   discovered    Hispaniola,    Columbus   returned   to 
Spain. 

27.  When  the  shower  had  passed  away,  we  resumed  our  journey. 

28.  When  peace  of  mind  is  secured,  we  may  smile  at  misfortune. 

29.  To  an  American  who  visits  Europe,  the  long  voyage  is  an  excel- 
lent preparative. 

30.  A  man  who  is  deceitful  can  never  be  trusted. 


EXERCISE    XX. 
Capitals. 

TO  THE  TEACHER:  Experience  proves  that 
clear  ideas  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  a  sub- 
ject carry  with  them  the  observance  of  minor  prin- 
ples,  and  that  details  embarrass  and  discourage 
beginners.  Mastery  of  the  detail  of  a  subject  is  im- 
possible during  school  and  college  life.  Only  the 
principal  uses  of  capital  letters  and  punctuation 
marks  are  given  and  illustrated  in  this  exercise. 
The  following  rules  are  clearly  within  the  grasp  of 
pupils  in  high  schools. 

Capitals. 

The  following  words  should  begin  with  capital  letters : 

1,  The  titles  of  books,  and  the  heads  of  their  parts, 
chapters,  sections,  and  divisions ;  as,  A  History  of  the 
Rebellion.  Milton's  Select  Poems.  Classes  of  Nouns. 
Free  Trade  and  Protection.     Watts  on  the  Mind. 

2.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence,  of  every  line  of 
poetry,  of  every  paragraph  or  line  indented  from  the 
margin,  of  every  sentence  quoted  directly ;  as,  "  Evil  com- 
munications corrupt  good  manners.' 


?? 


They  are  slaves  who  fear  to  speak 
For  the  fallen  and  the  weak  ; 
They  are  slaves  who  will  not  choose 
Hatred,  scoffing,  and  abuse, 
Rather  than  in  silence  shrink 
From  the  truth  they  needs  must  think  ; 
They  are  slaves  who  dare  not  be 
In  the  right  with  two  or  three. — Lowell. 
142 


CAPITALS.  143 

Reading  furnishes  the  mind  only  with  materials  of  knowledge  ;  it 
is  thinking  that  makes  what  we  read  ours. — Locke. 

"A  man's  first  care  should  be  to  avoid  the  reproaches  of  his  own 
heart ;  his  next  to  escape  the  censures  of  the  world.  If  the  last 
interferes  with  the  former,  it  ought  to  be  entirely  neglected.'1 

3.  Proper  names  and  adjectives  derived  from  proper 
names  should  begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  America,  American. 
Boston,  Bostonian. 

4.  Titles  of  honor,  office,  respect,  and  distinction  should 
begin  with  a  capital ;  as,  Chief  Justice  Fuller,  Rev.  J.  H. 
Nichols,  President  Roosevelt. 

5.  Names  applied  to  Deity,  names  of  religious  sects,  of 
political  parties,  of  days  of  the  week,  of  months,  and  of 
holidays ;  as,  Our  Father.  The  Republican  Party.  Epis- 
copalians.    Monday.     December.     Christmas. 

6.  The  words  I  and  0  should  be  capitals. 

Italics  are  used  to  direct  attention  to  an  emphatic  word, 
phrase,  or  clause. 

Sentences  to  be  corrected. 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  Require  the  pupil  to  read 
the  sentence  as  it  is,  condemn  what  is  to  be  cor- 
rected, correct  the  erroneous  part,  give  the  reason 
by  stating  the  principle  violated,  and  finally  read 
the  corrected  sentence.  With  the  exception  of  six 
or  eight  well-established  rules  governing  the  use  of 
capital  letters,  the  writer  is  privileged  to  use  his  own 
judgment.  Oast-iron  rules  cannot  be  applied  to  an 
art  or  science  which  is  still  in  the  process  of  de- 
velopment. 

1.  Congress  authorized  general  Washington  to  take  charge  of  the 
southern  district. 

2.  The   blood  of  those  who   have   Fallen   at  concord,   lexington, 
bunker  hill  cries  aloud,  "  it  is  time  to  part.1' 


144  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.  Three  cheers  were  given  for  the  "  champion  of  the  south." 

4.  The  bible  says,  "children,  obey  your  parents.'" 

5.  A  hundred  presbyterian  ministers  preached  every  Sunday  in 
Middlesex. 

6.  There  was  no  church  to-day  at  middle  grove. 

7.  In  Benton's  thirty  years  in  congress,  you  can  find  this  state- 
ment. 

8.  Daniel  Webster,  secretary  of  state. 

9.  At  fort  black  hawk. 

10.  He  knew  general  la  Fayette  and  captain  Phipps. 

11.  He  was  first  a  Captain  then  a  General. 

12.  This  Chief  had  the  sounding  appellation  of  white  thunder. 

13.  Washington  city,  the  Capital  of  the  United  States,  is  in  the 
district  of  Columbia. 

14.  He  is  president  of  Westminster  college,  and  was  formerly 
principal  of  Montrose  academy. 

15.  The  president  lives  in  the  white  house. 

16.  These  Birds  go  South  in  the  Winter,  but  return  in  Spring  or 
Summer. 

17.  Falsehood  let  the  arms  of  sophistry  fall  from  her  grasp,  and 
holding  up  the  shield  of  impudence  with  both  her  hands,  sheltered 
herself  among  the  passions. 

18.  The  first  melting  of  Lead  Ore  in  this  country  was  in  a  rude 
log  furnace. 

19.  This  is  especially  true  of  Elm  and  Hickory  land. 

20.  At  length  the  comprehension  bill  was  sent  down  to  the 
commons. 

21.  The  author  of  the  Task  was  a  good  Poet. 

22.  She  has  gone  to  him  that  comforteth  as  a  father  comforteth. 

23.  He  was  President  of  the  massachusetts  historical  society,  and 
contributor  to  the  Boston  daily  advertiser. 

24.  There  dwelt  a  sage  called  discipline. 

25.  Welsh  emigrants  who  were  zealous  christians  came  also. 

26.  Some  Bottom  Prairies  of  the  Missouri  are  sixty  miles  long. 


EXERCISE    XXI. 

Analysis. — Punctuation.— The  Paragraph. 

Analysis  in  grammar  is  the  process  of  separating  a  sen- 
tence into  its  elements. 

Directions  for  the  Analysis  of  Sentences. 

1.  Read  the  sentence  and  state  its  kind. 

2.  If  any  of  the  elements  are  inverted,  arrange  them  in 
their  natural  order. 

3.  If  necessary,  supply  the  ellipsis. 

4.  If  an  element  is  complex  or  compound,  resolve  it  into 
its  simple  elements. 

The  elements  of  a  sentence  are  the  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses  that  perform  distinct  offices  in  the  sentence. 

A  simple  element  consists  of  a  single  word,  phrase,  or 
clause,  unmodified;  as,  A  wealthy  man;  a  man  of  wealth; 
a  man  who  is  wealthy. 

A  complex  element  consists  of  a  single  word,  phrase,  or 
clause,  and  a  modifying  element ;  as,  A  very  wealthy  man ; 
a  man  of  immense  wealth  ;  a  man  who  is  immensely  wealthy. 

A  compound  element  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  or 

complex  elements  joined  by  a  coordinate  conjunction ;  as, 

Wise  and  good ;    of  wisdom  and  of  goodness;    with  great 

power  and  with  great  ability ;    that  the  earth  is  round  and 

that  it  revolves. 

10  145 


146  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

TO  THE  TEACHER:  Require  the  pupil  to  ex- 
press, in  his  own  language,  the  meaning-  of  the  sen- 
tence before  you  permit  him  to  attempt  its  formal 
analysis.    Analysis  is  but  a  means  to  an  end. 

In  the  proximate  analysis  of  complex  sentences, 
clauses  should  be  regarded  as  nouns,  adjectives,  and  ad- 
verbs. Make  it  clear  that  a  clause  is  a  dependent 
sentence, — that  standing  alone  it  does  not  make  com- 
plete sense.  Show  that  a  clause  does  the  work  of  a 
single  part  of  speech, — that  is,  that  the  mind  regards 
it  as  a  unit. 

In  the  ultimate  analysis  of  the  elements  of  a 
complex  sentence,  the  clauses  should  be  resolved 
into  their  component  parts,  and  analyzed  as  de- 
pendent sentences. 

The  following  eight  models  for  the  analysis  of  sentences  are 
taken  from  the  author's  "  Lessons  in  Grammar :" 

The  readiest  pupils  of  this  class  study  diligently  at  home. 

MODEL.— I.  It  is  a  simple  sentence  because  it 
contains  but  one  proposition;  declarative  because 
it  makes  a  statement.  The  bare  subject  is  pupils,  the 
complete  subject  is  The  readiest  pupils  of  this  class ;  the 
bare  predicate  is  study,  the  complete  predicate  is  study 
diligently  at  home.  The  bare  subject  is  modified  by  The 
readiest,  and  of  this  class,  adjective  terms.  The  bare 
predicate  is  modified  by  diligently,  and  at  home,  adverb- 
terms. 

The  gentleman  from  Boston  who  called  yesterday  morning  left  for 
home  in  the  afternoon. 

MODEL. — II.  It  is  a  complex,  declarative  sen- 
tence because  it  is  composed  of  an  independent 
proposition,  a  dependent  proposition,  and  states  a 
fact.  The  independent  proposition  is  The  gentleman 
from  Boston  left  for  home  in  the  afternoon.  The  dependent 
proposition  is  who  called  yesterday  morning. 


ANALYSIS.  147 

The  bare  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  is 
gentleman,  the  complete  subject  is  The  gentleman  from 
Boston  who  called  yesterday  morning  ;  the  bare  predicate  is 
left,  the  complete  predicate  is  left  for  home  in  the  afternoon. 

The  bare  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  is 
modified  by  The,  from  Boston,  and  who  called  yesterday  morn- 
ing, adjective-terms.  The  bare  predicate  is  modified 
by  for  home  and  in  the  afternoon,  adverb-terms. 


Analysis  of  the  Adjective  Clause. 

Who  is  the  subject  and  connective ;  called  is  the 
bare  predicate,  called  yesterday  in  the  morning  is  the  com- 
plete predicate. 

If  a  man  empties  his  purse  into  his  head,  no  man  can  take  it  away 
from  him. 

MODEL. — m.  It  is  a  complex,  declarative  sen- 
tence, because  it  is  composed  of  an  independent 
proposition,  a  dependent  proposition,  and  states  a 
fact.  The  independent  proposition  is  no  man  can  take 
it  away  from  him.  The  dependent  proposition  is  If  a  man 
empties  his  purse  into  his  head. 

The  bare  subject  of  the  principal  proposition  is 
man,  the  complete  subject  is  no  man;  the  bare  predi- 
cate is  can  take,  the  complete  predicate  is  can  take  it 
away  from  him.  The  bare  subject  of  the  principal  prop- 
osition is  modified  by  no,  an  adjective-term.  The 
bare  predicate  is  modified  by  its  object  it,  away  from 
him,  and  If  a  man  empties  his  purse  into  his  head. 


Analysis  of  the  Adverbial  Clause. 

MODEL. — IV.  Man  is  the  bare  subject,  a  man  the 
complete  subject ;  empties  is  the  bare  predicate,  empties 
his  purse  into  his  head  the  complete  predicate.  If  is  the 
connective,  and  joins  the  adverbial  clause  to  the 
predicate  of  the  principal  proposition. 


148  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

A  little  girl,  finding  a  wild  violet,  exclaimed,  "How  glad  I  am  to 
see  you  !" 

MODEL. — V.  It  is  a  complex,  declarative  sen- 
tence. The  principal  proposition  is  the  entire  sen- 
tence. The  bare  subject  is  girl,  the  complete  subject 
is  A  little  girl,  finding  a  wild  violet ;  the  bare  predicate  is 
exclaimed,  the  complete  predicate  is  exclaimed,  "How 
glad  I  am  to  see  youV 

Analysis  of  the  Substantive  Clause. 

MODEL. — VI.  It  is  a  simple,  exclamatory  sen- 
tence. I  is  both  the  bare  and  complete  subject ;  am 
is  the  bare  predicate,  am  glad  to  see  you  the  complete 
predicate.  How  is  an  intensive  adverb  used  to  em- 
phasize the  entire  sentence. 

A  fool  speaks  all  his  mind,  but  a  wise  man  reserves  something  for 

hereafter. 

MODEL. — VII.  It  is  a  compound,  declarative  sen- 
tence, because  it  is  composed  of  two  coordinate  sen- 
tences, joined  by  the  conjunction  but. 

Analysis  of  the  First  Member. 

It  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence.  The  bare 
subject  is  fool,  the  complete  subject  is  A  fool;  the 
bare  predicate  is  speaks,  the  complete  predicate  is 
speaks  all  his  mind.  The  bare  subject  is  modified  by  A, 
an  adjective-term.  The  bare  predicate  is  modified 
by  its  object  mind,  which  is  modified  by  all  and  his, 
adjective  terms. 

Analysis  of  the  Second  Member. 

It  is  a  simple,  declarative  sentence,  connective 
but.  The  bare  subject  is  man,  the  complete  subject  is 
a  wise  man  ;  the  bare  predicate  is  reserves,  the  complete 
predicate  is  reserves  something  for  hereafter.  The  bare  sub- 
ject is  modified  by  a  and  wise,  adjective-terms.  The 
bare  predicate  is  modified  by  its  object,  something,  and 
the  phrase  for  hereafter,  an  adverb-term. 


ANALYSIS.  149 

He  who  receives  a  good  turn  should  never  forget  it ;  he  who  does 
one  should  never  remember  it. 

MODEL.— Vm.  It  is  a  compound-complex  sen- 
tence; compound  because  it  is  composed  of  two 
coordinate  sentences  ;  complex  because  each  mem- 
ber is  composed  of  an  independent  and  a  dependent 
proposition. 

Analysis  of  the  First  Member. 

It  is  a  complex  sentence.  The  independent  prop- 
osition is  He  should  never  forget  it,  the  dependent  prop- 
osition is  who  receives  a  good  turn. 

Analysis  of  the  Second  Member. 

It  is  a  complex  sentence.  The  independent  prop- 
osition is  He  should  never  remember  it,  the  dependent 
proposition  is  who  does  one. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Habit  is  the  deepest  law  of  human  nature. — Carlyle. 

2.  He  that  lacks  time  to  mourn  lacks  time  to  mend. 

3.  He  spent  hours  of  enjoyment  in  tramping  through  the  fields. 

4.  The  sun  was  up,  but  it  was  hidden  by  the  clouds. 

5.  Our  friends  returned  sooner  than  we  expected  them. 

6.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  boys  understood  what  I  meant. 

7.  Columbus  died  in  ignorance  of  the  real  grandeur  of  his  dis- 
covery. 

8.  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain. 

9.  Some  are  born  great,  some  achieve  greatness,  and  some  have 
greatness  thrust  upon  them. 

10.  Childhood  shows  the  man  as  morning  shows  the  day. 

11.  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 

And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds. 

12.  Nothing  is  denied  to  well-directed  labor  ;  nothing  is  ever  to  be 
attained  without  it. 


150  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

13.  He  who  would  search  for  pearls  must  dive  below. 

14.  The  moon  has  sunk  behind  the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  the  stars 
in  the  darker  sky  shine  doubly  bright  over  the  sacred  city. 

15.  The  story  which  I  wrote  was  published  in  Wide  Awake. 

16.  The  tongue  is  the  key-board  of  the  soul  ;  but  it  makes  a  world 
of  difference  who  sits  to  play  upon  it. 

17.  He  who  has  a  thousand  friends  hath  not  a  friend  to  spare, 
And  he  who  has  one  enemy  shall  meet  him  everywhere. 

18.  The  wages  of  sin  is  death  ;  but  the  gift  of  God  is  eternal  life. 

19.  The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  cold. 
The  minstrel  was  infirm  and  old. 

20.  Know  ye  the  land  where  the  cypress  and  myrtle 

Are  emblems  of  deeds  that  are  done  in  their  clime  ? — Byron. 

21.  Reading  furnishes  the  mind  only  with  materials  of  knowledge  ; 
it  is  thinking  that  makes  what  we  read  ours. — Locke. 

22.  You  cannot  dream  yourself  into  a  character  ;  you  must  ham- 
mer and  forge  yourself  one. — Froude. 

23.  The  night  has  a  thousand  eyes  and  the  day  but  one, 

Yet  the  light  of  the  bright  world  dies  with  the  dying  sun  ; 
The  mind  has  a  thousand  eyes  and  the  heart  but  one, 
Yet  the  light  of  a  whole  life  dies  when  love  is  done. 

24.  Duty  and  to-day  are  ours  ;  results  and  futurity  belong  to  God. 

25.  Faith  that  asks  no  questions  kills  the  soul  and  stifles  the 
intellect. 

26.  We  know  not  whither  the  hunter  went, 
Or  how  the  last  of  his  days  was  spent ; 

For  the  moon  drew  nigh — but  he  came  not  back 
Weary  and  faint  from  his  forest  track. —  Whittier. 

27.  I  hate  anything  that  occupies  more  space  than  it  is  worth.  I 
hate  to  see  a  load  of  bandboxes  going  along  the  street,  and  I  hate  to 
see  a  parcel  of  big  words  without  anything  in  them. — Hazlitt. 

28.  The  flowers  fade,  the  heart  withers,  man  grows  old  and  dies, 
the  world  lies  down  in  the  sepulchre  of  ages  ;  but  Time  writes  no 
wrinkles  on  the  brow  of  Eternity. — Bishop  Heber. 

29.  Our  grand  business  is  not  to  see  what  lies  dimly  at  a  distance  ; 
but  to  do  what  lies  clearly  at  hand. — Carlyle. 


ANALYSIS.  151 

30.  The  one  prudence  in  life  is  concentration  ;  the  one  evil  is  dis- 
sipation.— Emerson. 

31.  Every  blade  of  grass  in  the  field  is  measured  ;  the  green  cups 
and  the  colored  crowns  of  every  flower  are  curiously  counted  ;  the 
stars  of  the  firmament  wheel  in  calculated  orbits  ;  even  the  storms 
have  their  laws. — Blaikie. 

32.  This  above  all  :  to  thine  own  self  be  true, 
And  it  must  follow,  as  the  night  the  day, 

Thou  canst  not  then  be  false  to  any  man. — Shakespeare. 

33.  A  little  weeping  would  ease  my  heart ; 

But  in  their  briny  bed 
My  tears  must  stop,  for  every  drop 
Hinders  needle  and  thread. 

34.  He  who  is  taught  to  live  upon  little,  owes  more  to  his  father's 
wisdom  than  he  that  has  a  great  deal  left  him  does  to  his  father's 
care. —  William  Penn. 

35.  If  you  have  built  castles  in  the  air,  your  work  need  not  be 
lost ;  that  is  where  they  should  be  built ;  now  put  foundations  under 
them . — Thoreau. 

36.  The  book  which  makes  a  man  think  the  most,  is  the  book 
which  strikes  the  deepest  root  in  his  memory  and  understanding. 

37.  What  I  must  do  is  all  that  concerns  me,  not  what  people 
think.  — Emerson. 

38.  Most  men  know  what  they  hate  ;  few,  what  they  love. 

39.  He  who  openly  tells  his  friends  all  that  he  thinks  of  them 
must  expect  that  they  will  secretly  tell  his  enemies  much  that  they 
do  not  think  of  him. 

40.  That  nations  sympathize  with  their  monarch's  glory,  that  they 
are  improved  by  his  virtues,  and  that  the  tone  of  morals  rises  high 
when  he  that  leads  the  band  is  perfect,  are  truths  admitted  with 
exultation  and  felt  with  honest  pride. 

41.  Hightly  elated  by  his  unexpected  good  fortune,  he  returned 
home.  Saving  carefully  the  fruits  of  his  labor,  he  at  length  was  able 
to  purchase  a  farm. 

42.  A  cheerful  temper,  joined  with  innocence,  will  make  beauty 
attractive,    knowledge    delightful,    and   wit    good-natured.       It   will 


152  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

lighten  sickness,   poverty,   and  affliction,    convert  ignorance  into  an 
amiable  simplicity,  and  render  deformity  itself  agreeable. — Addison. 

43.  When  the  victory  shall  be  complete,  when  there  shall  be 
neither  a  slave  nor  a  drunkard  on  the  earth, — how  proud  the  title  of 
that  land  which  may  truly  claim  to  be  the  birthplace  and  the  cradle 
of  both  those  revolutions  that  shall  have  ended  in  that  victory  ! 
How  nobly  distinguished  that  people  who  shall  have  planted  and 
nurtured  to  maturity  both  the  political  and  moral  freedom  of  their 
species  ! — Abraham  Lincoln. 

44.  The  Bible  is  the  treasure  of  the  poor,  the  solace  of  the  sick, 
and  the  support  of  the  dying  ;  and  while  other  books  may  amuse  and 
instruct  in  a  leisure  hour,  it  is  the  peculiar  triumph  of  that  book  to 
create  light  in  the  midst  of  darkness,  to  alleviate  the  sorrow  which 
admits  of  no  other  alleviation,  to  direct  a  beam  of  hope  to  the  heart 
which  no  other  topic  of  consolation  can  reach  ;  while  guilt,  despair, 
and  death  vanish  at  the  touch  of  its  holy  inspiration. 

45.  Will  you  believe  that  the  pure  system  of  Christian  faith  which 
appeared  eighteen  hundred  years  ago,  in  one  of  the  obscurest  regions 
of  the  Roman  empire,  at  the  moment  of  the  highest  mental  cultiva- 
tion and  of  the  lowest  moral  degeneracy  ;  which  superseded  at  once 
all  the  curious  fabrics  of  pagan  philosophy  ;  which  spread  almost 
instantaneously  through  the  civilized  world,  in  opposition  to  the 
prejudices,  the  pride,  and  the  persecution  of  the  times  ;  which  has 
already  had  the  most  beneficial  influence  on  society,  and  has  been 
the  source  of  almost  all  the  melioration  of  the  human  character  ;  and 
which  is  now  the  chief  support  of  the  harmony,  the  domestic  happi- 
ness, the  moral  and  intellectual  improvement  of  the  best  part  of  the 
world  :  will  you  believe,  I  say,  that  this  system  originated  in  the 
unaided  reflections  of  twelve  Jewish  fishermen  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
with  the  son  of  a  carpenter  at  their  head  ? 

46.  To-day  is  your  day  and  mine  ;  the  only  day  we  have  ;  the  day 
in  which  we  play  our  part.  What  our  part  may  signify  in  the  great 
whole  we  may  not  understand  ;  but  we  are  here  to  play  it  and  now 
is  our  time.  This  we  know  :  it  is  a  part  of  action,  not  of  whining. 
It  is  a  part  of  love,  not  cynicism.  It  is  for  us  to  express  love  in 
terms  of  human  helpfulness.     This  we  know,  for  we  have  learned 


ANALYSIS.  153 

from  sad  experience  that  any  other  course  of  life  leads  towards  decay 
and  waste. — David  Starr  Jordan. 

47.  They  tell  us,  sir,  that  we  are  weak, — unable  to  cope  with  so 
formidable  an  adversary.  But  when  shall  we  be  stronger  ?  Will  it 
be  the  next  week,  or  the  next  year?  Shall  we  gather  strength  by 
irresolution  and  inaction  ?  Sir,  we  are  not  weak,  if  we  make  a 
proper  use  of  those  means  which  the  God  of  nature  hath  placed  in 
our  power.  The  battle,  sir,  is  not  to  the  strong  alone  :  it  is  to  the 
vigilant,  the  active,  the  brave.  If  we  were  base  enough  to  desire  it, 
it  is  now  too  late  to  retire  from  the  contest.  The  war  is  inevitable, 
— and  let  it  come.  Our  brethren  are  already  in  the  field.  Why 
stand  we  here  idle  ?  Is  life  so  dear,  or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  pur- 
chased at  the  price  of  chains  and  slavery  ?  Forbid  it,  Almighty  God  ! 
I  know  not  what  course  others  may  take  ;  but  as  for  me,  give  me 
liberty,  or  give  me  death  ! — Patrick  Henry. 

48.  The  Memory  of  George  Washington. — A  hundred  years  hence 
other  disciples  of  Washington  will  celebrate  his  birth  with  no  less  of 
sincere  admiration  than  we  now  commemorate  it.  When  they  shall 
meet  as  we  now  meet,  to  do  themselves  and  him  that  honor,  so 
surely  as  they  shall  see  the  blue  summits  of  his  native  mountains  rise 
in  the  horizon,  so  surely  as  they  shall  behold  the  river  on  whose 
banks  he  lived,  and  on  whose  banks  he  rests,  still  flowing  on  towards 
the  sea,  so  surely  may  they  see  as  we  now  see,  the  flag  of  the  Union 
floating  on  the  top  of  the  Capitol ;  and  then,  as  now,  may  the  sun  in 
his  course  visit  no  land  more  free,  more  happy,  more  lovely  than 
this,  our  own  country. —  Webster. 

49.  The  Birthday  of  Washington. — The  birthday  of  the  "Father 
of  his  Country  !"  May  it  ever  be  freshly  remembered  by  American 
hearts  !  May  it  ever  reawaken  in  them  a  filial  veneration  for  his 
memory  ;  ever  rekindle  the  fires  of  patriotic  regard  to  the  country 
which  he  loved  so  well ;  to  which  he  gave  his  youthful  vigor  and  his 
youthful  energy  during  the  perilous  period  of  the  early  Indian  war- 
fare ;  to  which  he  devoted  his  life,  in  the  maturity  of  his  powers,  in 
the  field  ;  to  which  again  he  offered  the  counsels  of  his  wisdom  and 
his  experience  as  president  of  the  convention  that  framed  our  Consti- 
tution ;  which  he  guided  and  directed  while  in  the  chair  of  state,  and 


154  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

for  which  the  last  prayer  of  his  earthly  supplication  was  offered  up 
when  it  came  the  moment  for  him  so  well,  and  so  grandly,  and  so 
calmly  to  die  !  He  was  the  first  man  of  the  time  in  which  he  grew. 
His  memory  is  first  and  most  sacred  in  our  love  ;  and  ever  hereafter, 
till  the  last  drop  of  blood  shall  freeze  in  the  last  American  heart,  his 
name  shall  be  a  spell  of  power  and  might. — Rufus  Choate. 

50.  Books. — It  is  chiefly  through  books  that  we  enjoy  intercourse 
with  superior  minds,  and  these  invaluable  means  of  communication 
are  in  the  reach  of  all.  In  the  best  books  great  men  talk  to  us,  give 
us  their  most  precious  thoughts,  and  pour  their  souls  into  ours. 
God  be  thanked  for  books  !  They  are  the  voices  of  the  distant  and 
the  dead,  and  make  us  heirs  of  the  spiritual  life  of  past  ages.  Books 
are  the  true  levellers.  They  give  to  all,  who  will  faithfully  use 
them,  the  society,  the  spiritual  presence  of  the  best  and  greatest  of 
our  race.  No  matter  how  poor  I  am — no  matter  though  the  pros- 
perous of  my  own  time  will  not  enter  my  obscure  dwelling — if  the 
sacred  writers  will  enter  and  take  up  their  abode  under  my  roof,  if 
Milton  will  cross  my  threshold  to  sing  to  me  of  Paradise,  and  Shake- 
speare to  open  to  me  the  worlds  of  imagination  and  the  workings  of 
the  human  heart,  and  Franklin  to  enrich  me  with  his  practical  wis- 
dom, I  shall  not  pine  for  want  of  intellectual  companionship,  and  I 
may  become  a  cultivated  man  ;  though  excluded  from  what  is  called 
the  best  society  in  the  place  where  I  live. — Channing. 

Punctuation. 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  applying  certain  points  or 
marks  to  composition,  in  such  a  way  as  will  present  the 
sense  to  the  best  advantage. 

TO  TEACHER  AND  STUDENT :  The  division  of 
composition  into  sentences  and  parts  of  sentences 
is  made  according1  to  the  grammatical  sense.  It  is 
-well  to  understand,  at  the  outset,  that  punctuation 
varies  with  all  the  varieties  of  style.  An  author 
may  differently  punctuate  the  same  paragraph,  and 
correctly  each  time  according  to  his  view  and  feel- 
ings at  the  time. 


PUNCTUATION.  155 

Pauses  are  relative  rather  than  absolute.  A  semicolon 
requires  a  longer  pause  than  a  comma ;  a  colon,  longer 
than  a  semicolon ;  a  period,  longer  than  a  colon.  The 
other  points  require  pauses  which  depend  chiefly  on  the 
sense.  Grave  or  solemn  discourse  requires  longer  pauses 
than  that  which  is  lively  and  spirited.  Punctuation  marks 
are  used  to  mark  the  sense  rather  than  the  pauses.  A  pause 
should  generally  be  made  where  there  is  a  point,  but  it  does 
not  follow  that  a  point  should  be  used  wherever  there  is  a 
pause.  Punctuation  is  something  more  than  a  matter  of 
individual  taste.  There  are  rules  which  govern  the  princi- 
pal uses  of  the  most  important  points.     Master  these. 

Punctuation  marks  are  used  to  separate  entire  sentences 
or  the  elements  of  sentences.  The  elements  of  a  sentence 
are  the  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  which  perform  distinct 
offices  in  the  sentence. 

The  principal  punctuation  marks  are  the  comma  (,),  the 
semicolon  (;),  the  colon  (:),  the  period  (.),  the  interrogation 
'point  (?),  the  exclamation  point  (!),  the  hyphen  (-),  the  apos- 
trophe  ('),  the  dash  ( — ),  the  parenthesis,  quotation  marks. 

The  Comma.  1.  The  comma  is  used  to  mark  the  omis- 
sion of  a  word,  especially  the  verb  ;  as,  Dido  built  Carthage  ; 
Romulus,  Rome.  The  one  prudence  of  life  is  concentra- 
tion ;  the  one  evil,  dissipation. 

2.  The  comma  is  used  when  the  subject  ends  with  a  verb 
and  the  predicate  begins  with  one  ;  as,  Whatever  is,  is  right. 
To  say  that  he  sleeps,  is  to  say  that  he  is  better. 

3.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  independent  expres- 
sions from  the  rest  of  the  sentence ;  as,  John,  come  to  me. 
To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  error.  Generally  speaking, 
little  can  be  done  during  this  month. 


156  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

4.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  words  and  phrases  in 
the  same  construction  except  when  there  are  only  two 
words  or  phrases  and  they  are  connected  by  conjunctions ; 
as,  The  good,  the  true,  and  the  beautiful  are  found  in  all 
grades  of  life.  The  good  man  is  alive  to  all  the  sympathies, 
the  sanctions,  and  the  loves  of  social  existence.  He  sees 
the  evil  and  the  good.  Horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs  are 
among  the  chief  products  of  the  farm. 

5.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  words  and  phrases  used 
as  appositives ;  as,  Plato,  the  philosopher,  wrote  many  books. 
Moses,  the  servant  of  the  Lord,  died  in  the  land  of  Moab. 

6.  The  comma,  is  used  to  separate  words  or  phrases  out 
of  their  natural  order  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  ;  as, 
This,  on  the  contrary,  is  not  included.  He  felt,  however, 
that  he  ought  to  have  gone. 

7.  The  comma  is  used  before  direct  quotations ;  as,  He 
replied,  "  I  am  not  certain  of  this."  God  said,  "  Let  there 
be  light." 

8.  The  comma  should  be  used  when,  in  any  case,  the 
meaning  would  be  doubtful  or  ambiguous  without  it. 

As  an  example  of  the  effect  of  pointing,  see  the  change 
of  meaning  in  the  following  words  : 

James  Johnson  says  he  has  written  beautifully.  James,  Johnson  says 
he  has  written  beautifully.  "James  Johnson,"  says  he,  "  has  writ- 
ten beautifully. ' '     James  Johnson  says  he  has  written  ' '  beautifully. ' ' 

The  Semicolon.  1.  The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate 
the  members  of  a  compound  sentence  when  the  conjunc- 
tion is  omitted,  or  when  the  connection  is  not  close ;  as, 
Life  is  short;  art  is  long.  A  clownish  air  is  but  a  small 
defect ;  yet  it  is  enough  to  make  a  man  disagreeable.  Make 
use  of  your  time  ;  for  the  loss  of  it  can  never  be  regained. 


PUNCTUATION.  157 

2.  The  semicolon  is  used  before  as,  viz.,  to  wit,  namely, 
etc. ;  the  comma  should  be  used  after  them ;  as,  Pronouns 
are  divided  into  four  principal  classes ;  namely,  Personal, 
Relative,  Adjective,  Interrogative.  There  are  only  two  ex- 
ceptions to  this  statement ;  to  wit,  the  adjectives  this  and 
that.  He  proposed  to  visit  the  three  largest  cities  in  the 
United  States  ;  viz.,  New  York,  Chicago,  and  Philadelphia. 

The  Colon.  1.  The  colon  is  now  but  little  used  except 
before  examples  following  as  follows,  the  following  examples  ; 
as,  Perform  the  following  examples  :  He  used  these  words : 

2.  The  colon  is  used  to  separate  the  terms  of  a  propor- 
tion ;  as,  A  :  B  : :  C  :  D. 

The  Period.  1.  The  period  is  used  at  the  close  of 
declarative  and  imperative  sentences ;  as,  Knowledge  is 
useful  and  honorable.     Know  thyself. 

2.  The  period  is  used  after  abreviations ;  as,  I  invited 
Mr.  and  Mrs.  Jones.     St.  Louis,  Mo.     Philadelphia,  Pa. 

The  Interrogation  Point.  The  interrogation  point  is 
used  at  the  close  of  an  interrogative  sentence  ;  as,  Who  is 
that  man  ?     What  can  I  do  for  you  ? 

The  Exclamation  Point.  The  exclamation  point  is  used 
after  exclamatory  words  and  phrases,  and  after  sentences 
expressing  strong  emotion  ;  as,  Lost !  Lost !  0  that  I  were 
at  home  !  0  the  long  and  dreary  winter  !  How  unsearch- 
able are  his  ways  ! 

The  Hyphen.  The  hyphen  is  used  to  separate  the  parts 
of  a  compound  word ;  as,  Self-evident.  Well-established. 
Self-reliance. 

The  Dash.  The  dash  is  used  where  there  is  an  unex- 
pected transition  in  the  sentence,  or  where  a  sentence  is 


158  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

left  unfinished  ;  as,  He  sometimes  takes  counsel  and  some- 
times— snuff.  But  I  must  first — .  The  colonists— such  is 
human  nature — desired  to  burn  the  town  in  which  they 
had  been  so  wretched. 

The  Parenthesis.  The  parenthesis  is  used  to  enclose  an 
explanation,  or  other  matter  not  belonging  to  the  gram- 
matical construction  of  the  sentence ;  as,  Consider  (and 
may  the  consideration  sink  deep  into  your  hearts)  the  fatal 
consequences  of  a  wicked  life. 

Quotation  Marks.  Quotation  marks  are  used  before 
and  after  a  passage  quoted  in  the  exact  language  of  another ; 
as,  He  said,  "  I  relinquish  my  claim."  Johnson  replied, 
"  I  am  too  tired  to  work  to-day." 

The  Apostrophe.  The  apostrophe  is  used  in  the  pos- 
sessive case  of  nouns,  and  to  denote  the  plural  of  figures 
and  letters,  and  the  omission  of  a  letter ;  as,  John's  hat, 
men's  shoes,  2's,  7's,  p's,  q's,  I've,  FU,  Don't,  o'er. 

The  Underscore.  The  underscore  is  used  in  writing  to 
denote  general  emphasis  or  distinction.  One  line  drawn 
under  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  means  that  the  word, 
phrase,  or  clause  is  to  be  printed  in  italic;  as,  "We  must 
fight;  I  repeat  it,  sir,  we  must  fight."     Here  J  reign  king. 

"  An  hour  or  two,  and  forth  she  goes, 
The  school  she  brightly  seeks  ; 
She  carries  in  her  hand  a  rose, 
And  two  upon  her  cheeks. ' ' 

Italics  are  generally  used  to  distinguish  what  is  spoken 
of  as  a  mere  letter,  word,  phrase,  or  sentence  ;  as,  A  wants 
ye  to  make  it  aye.  Which  may  be  applied  to  phrases  or 
clauses  but  that  only  to  nouns  or  pronouns.  That  the  earth 
is  round  is  admitted. 


EXERCISE    IN    PUNCTUATION.  159 

To  denote  still  greater  emphasis  than  italics  would 
express,  capital  letters  should  be  used.  Two  lines  drawn 
under  an  element  denotes  small  capitals  ;  three  lines, 
CAPITALS. 

Exercise  in  Punctuation. 

A  Country  Parsonage. 

[From  Goldsmith's  "  Vicar  of  Wakefield."] 

This  beautiful  word-picture  shows  that  happiness  depends  not  on 
circumstances,  but  on  constitution — that  "  The  mind  is  its  own  place, 
that  it  can  make  a  heaven  of  hell  or  a  hell  of  heaven. ' ' 

Explain  the  reason  for  the  use  of  each  punctuation  mark 
used  in  the  following  extract : 

The  place  of  our  retreat  was  in  a  little  neighborhood  consisting 
of  farmers,  who  tilled  their  own  grounds,  and  were  equal  strangers 
to  opulence  and  poverty.  As  they  had  almost  all  the  conveniences 
of  life  within  themselves,  they  seldom  visited  towns  or  cities,  in 
search  of  superfluities.  Remote  from  the  polite,  they  still  retained 
the  primeval  simplicity  of  manners  ;  and  frugal  by  habit,  they 
scarcely  knew  that  temperance  was  a  virtue.  They  wrought  with 
cheerfulness  on  days  of  labor,  but  observed  festivals  as  intervals  of 
idleness  and  pleasure.  They  kept  up  the  Christmas  carol,  sent  true- 
love-knots  on  Valentine  morning,  eat  pancakes  on  Shrove-tide, 
showed  their  wit  on  the  first  of  April,  and  religiously  cracked  nuts  on 
Michaelmas  eve.  Being  apprised  of  our  approach,  the  whole  neigh- 
borhood came  out  to  meet  their  minister,  dressed  in  their  finest 
clothes,  and  preceded  by  a  pipe  and  tabor.  A  feast  also  was  provided 
for  our  reception,  at  which  we  sat  cheerfully  down  ;  and  what  the 
conversation  wanted  in  wit,  was  made  up  in  laughter. 

Our  little  habitation  was  situated  at  the  foot  of  a  sloping  hill, 
sheltered  with  a  beautiful  underwood  behind,  and  a  prattling  river 
before,  on  one  side  a  meadow,  on  the  other  a  green.  My  farm  con- 
sisted of  about  twenty  acres  of  excellent  land,  having  given  an  hun- 


160  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

dred  pound  for  my  predecessor's  good-will.  Nothing  could  exceed 
the  neatness  of  my  little  inclosures,  the  elms  and  hedgerows  appear- 
ing with  inexpressible  beauty.  My  house  consisted  of  but  one  story, 
and  was  covered  with  thatch,  which  gave  it  an  air  of  great  snugness. 
The  walls  on  the  inside  were  nicely  whitewashed,  and  my  daughters 
undertook  to  adorn  them  with  pictures  of  their  own  designing. 
Though  the  same  room  served  us  for  parlor  and  kitchen,  that  only 
made  it  the  warmer.  Besides,  as  it  was  kept  with  the  utmost  neat- 
ness, the  dishes,  plates,  and  coppers  being  well  scoured,  and  all  dis- 
posed in  bright  rows  on  the  shelves,  the  eye  was  agreeably  relieved, 
and  did  not  want  richer  furniture.  There  were  three  other  apart- 
ments, one  for  my  wife  and  me,  another  for  our  two  daughters, 
within  our  own,  and  the  third,  with  two  beds,  for  the  rest  of  the 
children. 

The  little  republic  to  which  I  gave  laws,  was  regulated  in  the 
following  manner :  by  sunrise  we  all  assembled  in  our  common 
apartment,  the  fire  being  previously  kindled  by  the  servant.  After 
we  had  saluted  each  other  with  proper  ceremony,  for  I  always  thought 
fit  to  keep  up  some  mechanical  forms  of  good  breeding,  without 
which  freedom  ever  destroys  friendship,  we  all  bent  in  gratitude  to 
that  Being  who  gave  us  another  day.  This  duty  being  performed, 
my  son  and  I  went  to  pursue  our  usual  industry  abroad,  while  my 
wife  and  daughters  employed  themselves  in  providing  breakfast, 
which  was  always  ready  at  a  certain  time.  I  allowed  half  an  hour 
for  this  meal,  and  an  hour  for  dinner  ;  which  time  was  taken  up  in 
innocent  mirth  between  my  wife  and  daughters,  and  in  philosophical 
arguments  between  my  son  and  me. 

As  we  rose  with  the  sun,  so  we  never  pursued  our  labors  after  it 
was  gone  down,  but  returned  home  to  the  expecting  family  ;  where 
smiling  looks,  a  neat  hearth,  and  pleasant  fire  were  prepared  for  our 
reception.  Nor  were  we  without  guests  :  sometimes  farmer  Flam- 
borough,  our  talkative  neighbor,  and  often  the  blind  piper  would  pay 
us  a  visit,  and  taste  our  gooseberry  wine,  for  the  making  of  which  we 
had  lost  neither  the  receipt  nor  the  reputation.  These  harmless  peo- 
ple had  several  ways  of  being  good  company  ;  while  one  played,  the 
other  would  sing  some  soothing  ballad,  "  Johnny  Armstrong's  Last 


EXERCISES   IN   PUNCTUATION.  161 

Good  Night,"  or  "The  Cruelty  of  Barbary  Allen."  The  night  was 
concluded  in  the  manner  we  began  the  morning,  my  youngest  boys 
being  appointed  to  read  the  lessons  of  the  day  ;  and  he  that  read 
loudest,  distinctest,  and  best,  was  to  have  an  halfpenny  on  Sunday  to 
put  in  the  poor's  box. 

When  Sunday  came,  it  was  indeed  a  day  of  finery,  which  all  my 
sumptuary  edicts  could  not  restrain.  How  well  soever  I  fancied  my 
lectures  against  pride  had  conquered  the  vanity  of  my  daughters,  yet 
I  found  them  still  secretly  attached  to  all  their  former  finery  :  they 
still  loved  laces,  ribbons,  bugles,  and  catgut.  My  wife  herself  re- 
tained a  passion  for  her  crimson  paduasoy,  because  I  formerly  hap- 
pened to  say  it  became  her. 

The  first  Sunday  in  particular  their  behavior  served  to  mortify 
me.  I  had  desired  my  girls  the  preceding  night  to  be  dressed  early 
the  next  day  ;  for  I  always  loved  to  be  at  church  a  good  while  before 
the  rest  of  the  congregation.  They  punctually  obeyed  my  directions  ; 
but  when  we  were  to  assemble  in  the  morning  at  breakfast,  down 
came  my  wife  and  daughters,  dressed  out  all  in  their  former  splendor, 
their  hair  plastered  up  with  pomatum,  their  faces  patched  to  taste, 
their  trains  bundled  up  in  a  heap  behind,  and  rustling  at  every 
motion.  I  could  not  help  smiling  at  their  vanity,  particularly  that 
of  my  wife,  from  whom  I  expected  more  discretion.  In  this  exi- 
gence, therefore,  my  only  resource  was  to  order  my  son,  with  an 
important  air,  to  call  our  coach.  The  girls  were  amazed  at  the  com- 
mand ;  but  I  repeated  it  with  more  solemnity  than  before. — "  Surely, 
my  dear,  you  jest,"  cried  my  wife,  "  we  can  walk  it  perfectly  well  :  we 
want  no  coach  to  carry  us  now." — "You  mistake,  child,"  returned  I, 
* '  we  do  want  a  coach  ;  for  if  we  walk  to  church  in  this  trim,  the  very 
children  in  the  parish  will  hoot  after  us." — "Indeed,"  replied  my 
wife,  "I  always  imagined  that  my  Charles  was  fond  of  seeing  his 
children  neat  and  handsome  about  him." — "You  may  be  as  neat  as 
you  please,"  interrupted  I,  "  and  I  shall  love  you  the  better  for  it ;  but 
all  this  is  not  neatness,  but  frippery.  These  rufflings,  and  pinkings, 
and  patchings  will  only  make  us  hated  by  all  the  wives  of  all  our 
neighbors.  No,  my  children,"  continued  I,  more  gravely,  "those 
gowns  may  be  altered  into  something  of  a  plainer  cut ;  for  finery  is 

11 


162  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

very  unbecoming  in  us,  who  want  the  means  of  decency.  I  do  not 
know  whether  such  flouncing  and  shredding  is  becoming  even  in  the 
rich,  if  we  consider,  upon  a  moderate  calculation,  that  the  naked- 
ness of  the  indigent  world  may  be  clothed  from  the  trimmings  of 
the  vain." 

This  remonstrance  had  the  proper  effect ;  they  went  with  great 
composure,  that  very  instant,  to  change  their  dress  ;  and  the  next 
day  I  had  the  satisfaction  of  finding  my  daughters,  at  their  own  re- 
quest, employed  in  cutting  up  their  trains  into  Sunday  waistcoats  for 
Dick  and  Bill,  the  two  little  ones  ;  and  what  was  still  more  satisfac- 
tory, the  gowns  seemed  improved  by  this  curtailing. 

The  Paragraph. 

A  paragraph  is  a  distinct  subdivision  of  writing  relating  to 
a  particular  point.  It  may  consist  of  one  or  of  many  sen- 
tences. 

There  are  no  definite  rules  as  to  the  length  of  a  para- 
graph. The  number  of  paragraphs  in  a  composition  is 
determined  by  the  number  of  points  which  the  writer  wishes 
to  make  distinct.  It  is  a  well-established  belief  that  the 
effectiveness  of  written  matter  may  be  increased  by  dividing 
it  into  distinct  divisions,  by  indicating  where  the  discussion 
of  a  topic  ends  and  where  the  discussion  of  the  next  topic 
begins.  A  new  paragraph  should  begin  where  there  is  a 
change  in  the  specific  topic. 

While  no  specific  rules  can  be  given  for  the  construction 
of  paragraphs,  the  paragraph  can  be  considered  and  under- 
stood. The  indifference  with  which  untrained  writers — and 
many  authors — regard  this  important  element  of  composi- 
tion warrants  the  assertion  that  the  subject  of  paragraph- 
ing receives  too  little  attention  in  the  schools.  Pupils  in  the 
grammar  grades  can  be  trained  to  group  sentences  which 
are  closely  related  in  thought  into  a  paragraph. 


THE    PARAGRAPH.  163 

Study  of  the  Paragraph. 

Every  group  of  sentences  closely  related  in  thought  should 
be  grouped  together.  Such  grouping  facilitates  the  appre- 
hension of  the  writer's  thoughts  and  improves  the  appear- 
ance of  the  written  or  printed  page.  The  page  of  a  school- 
book  or  of  a  literary  work  would  present  a  monotonous 
appearance  if  it  were  unbroken.  Pupils  in  the  grades, 
especially  those  in  the  high  school,  should  criticise  their 
compositions  by  paragraphs.  Composition  should  be  revised 
until  it  is  concise  and  correctly  divided  into  paragraphs. 

The  pupil  will  study  the  following  selection  by  paragraphs, 
giving,  according  to  the  preceding  definition  and  suggestions, 
a  clear  reason  for  each  subdivision  or  paragraph.  The  main 
point  to  understand  clearly  is  that  a  new  paragraph  should 
begin  where  there  is  a  change  in  the  specific  topic ;  that 
is,  where  another  feature  of  the  main  subject  is  presented. 

ADVICE   TO   BOYS. 

1.  Upon  whatever  career  you  may  enter,  intellectual  quickness,  in- 
dustry, and  the  power  of  bearing  fatigue  are  three  great  advantages. 
But  I  want  to  impress  upon  you,  and  through  you  upon  those  who  will 
direct  your  future  course,  the  conviction  which  I  entertain  that,  as 
a  general  rule,  the  relative  importance  of  these  three  qualifications  is 
not  rightly  estimated  ;  and  that  there  are  other  qualities  of  no  less 
value  which  are  not  directly  tested  by  school  competition. 

2.  A  somewhat  varied  experience  of  men  has  led  me,  the  longer  I 
live,  to  set  the  less  value  upon  mere  cleverness  ;  to  attach  more  and 
more  importance  to  industry  and  to  physical  endurance.  Indeed,  I 
am  much  disposed  to  think  that  endurance  is  the  most  valuable  quality 
of  all  ;  for  industry,  as  the  desire  to  work  hard,  does  not  come  to 
much  if  a  feeble  frame  is  unable  to  respond  to  the  desire. 

3.  Everybody  who  has  had  to  make  his  way  in  the  world  must 
know  that  while  the  occasion  for  intellectual  effort  of  a  high  order  is 


164  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

rare,  it  constantly  happens  that  a  man's  future  turns  upon  his  being 
able  to  stand  a  sudden  and  heavy  strain  upon  his  powers  of  endurance. 
To  a  lawyer,  a  physician,  or  a  merchant,  it  may  be  everything  to  be 
able  to  work  sixteen  hours  a  day  for  as  long  as  is  needful,  without 
yielding  up  to  weariness. 

4.  Moreover,  the  patience,  tenacity,  and  good  humor  which  are 
among  the  most  important  qualifications  for  dealing  with  men,  are  in- 
compatible with  an  irritable  brain,  a  weak  stomach,  or  a  defective 
circulation.  If  any  one  of  you  prize-winners  were  a  son  of  mine,  and 
a  good  fairy  were  to  offer  to  equip  him  according  to  my  wishes  for  the 
battle  of  practical  life,  I  should  say,  "  I  do  not  care  to  trouble  you  for 
any  more  cleverness  ;  put  in  as  much  industry  as  you  can  instead  ; 
and,  if  you  please,  a  broad,  deep  chest,  and  a  stomach  of  whose  exist- 
ence he  shall  never  know  anything."  I  should  be  well  content  with 
the  prospects  of  a  fellow  so  endowed. 

5.  The  other  point  which  I  wish  to  impress  upon  you  is,  that  com- 
petitive examination,  useful  and  excellent  as  it  is  for  some  purposes, 
is  only  a  very  partial  test  of  what  the  winners  will  be  worth  in  practi- 
cal life.  There  are  people  who  are  neither  very  clever,  nor  very  in- 
dustrious, nor  very  strong,  and  who  would  probably  be  nowhere  in  an 
examination,  and  who  yet  exert  a  great  influence  in  virtue  of  what  is 
called  force  of  character. 

6.  They  may  not  know  much,  but  they  take  care  that  what  they  do 
know  they  know  well.  They  may  not  be  very  quick,  but  the  knowl- 
edge they  acquire  sticks.  They  may  not  even  be  particularly  indus- 
trious or  enduring,  but  they  are  strong  of  will  and  firm  of  purpose, 
undaunted  by  fear  of  responsibility,  single-minded  and  trustworthy. 

7.  In  practical  life,  a  man  of  this  sort  is  worth  any  number  of 
merely  clever  and  learned  people.  Of  course  I  do  not  mean  to  imply 
for  a  moment  that  success  in  examination  is  incompatible  with  the 
possession  of  character,  such  as  I  have  just  defined  it,  but  failure  in 
examination  is  no  evidence  of  the  want  of  such  character. 

8.  And  this  leads  me  to  administer,  from  my  point  of  view,  the 
crumb  of  comfort  which  on  these  occasions  is  ordinarily  offered  to 
those  whose  names  do  not  appear  upon  the  prize-list.  It  is  quite  true 
that  practical  life  is  a  kind  of  long  competitive  examination,  conducted 


THE    PARAGRAPH.  165 

by  that  severe  pedagogue,  Professor  Circumstance.  Rut  my  experi- 
ence leads  me  to  conclude  that  his  marks  are  given  much  more  for 
character  than  for  cleverness. 

9.  Hence,  though  I  have  no  doubt  that  those  boys  who  have  received 
prizes  to-day,  have  already  given  rise  to  a  fair  hope  that  the  future  may 
see  them  prominent,  perhaps  brilliantly  distinguished  members  of 
society,  yet  neither  do  I  think  it  at  all  unlikely  that  among  the  undis- 
tinguished crowd  there  may  lie  the  making  of  some  simple  soldier 
whose  practical  sense  and  indomitable  courage  may  save  an  army  led 
by  characterless  cleverness  to  the  brink  of  destruction  ;  or  some  plain 
man  of  business,  who,  by  dint  of  sheer  honesty  and  firmness,  may 
slowly  and  surely  rise  to  prosperity  and  honor,  when  his  more  bril- 
liant compeers,  for  lack  of  character,  have  gone  down,  with  all  who 
trusted  them,  to  hopeless  ruin. 

10.  Such  things  do  happen.  Hence  let  none  of  you  be  discouraged. 
Those  who  have  won  prizes  have  made  a  good  beginning  ;  those  who 
have  not  may  yet  make  that  good  ending  which  is  better  than  a  good 
beginning.  No  life  is  wasted  unless  it  ends  in  sloth,  dishonesty,  or 
cowardice.  No  success  is  worthy  of  the  name  unless  it  is  won  by 
honest  industry  and  brave  breasting  of  the  waves  of  fortune. 

11.  Unless  at  the  end  of  life  some  exhalation  of  the  dawn  still  hangs 
about  the  palpable  and  the  familiar  ;  unless  there  is  some  transforma- 
tion of  the  real  into  the  best  dreams  of  youth,  depend  upon  it,  what- 
ever outward  success  may  have  gathered  round  a  man,  he  is  but  an 
elaborate  and  a  mischievous  failure. — Professor  Huxley. 

TO  THE  TEACHER:  An  educated  and  trained 
teacher  does  not  accept  the  mere  recitation  of  text- 
book definitions  and  rules  as  evidence  that  the  pupil 
understands  them  and  can  use  them.  The  teacher 
-who  accepts  memory  recitations,  without  requiring" 
ample  original  illustrations  by  the  pupil,  is  never 
certain  that  the  pupil  understands  or  that  he  can 
use  his  learning.  Method  should  train  the  pupil 
to  think  for  himself.  Helping  a  pupil  to  help  him- 
self is  the  only  help  the  pupil  should  ever  receive 
from  the  teacher.     "  Gifts  do  not  enrich." 


166  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Make  two  paragraphs  out  of  each  of  the  following  quota- 
tions : 

Books. — It  is  chiefly  through  books  that  we  enjoy  intercourse  with 
superior  minds,  and  these  invaluable  means  of  communication  are  in 
the  reach  of  all.  In  the  best  books  great  men  talk  to  us,  give  us  their 
most  precious  thoughts,  and  pour  their  souls  into  ours.  God  be 
thanked  for  books.  They  are  the  voices  of  the  distant  and  the  dead, 
and  make  us  heirs  of  the  spiritual  life  of  past  ages.  Books  are  the  true 
levellers.  They  give  to  all,  who  will  faithfully  use  them,  the  society, 
the  spiritual  presence  of  the  best  and  greatest  of  our  race.  No  matter 
how  poor  I  am, — no  matter  though  the  prosperous  of  my  own  time  will 
not  enter  my  obscure  dwelling, — if  the  sacred  writers  will  enter  and 
take  up  their  abode  under  my  roof, — if  Milton  will  cross  my  threshold 
to  sing  to  me  of  Paradise,  and  Shakespeare  to  open  to  me  the  worlds 
of  imagination  and  the  workings  of  the  human  heart,  and  Franklin 
to  enrich  me  with  his  practical  wisdom,  I  shall  not  pine  for  want  of 
intellectual  companionship,  and  I  may  become  a  cultivated  man, 
though  excluded  from  what  is  called  the  best  society  in  the  place 
where  I  live. — Channing. 


Education  in  the  United  States. — For  the  purpose  of  public 
instruction,  we  hold  every  man  subject  to  taxation  in  proportion 
to  his  property,  and  we  look  not  to  the  question  whether  he  him- 
self have  or  have  not  children  to  be  benefited  by  the  education  for 
which  he  pays.  We  regard  it  as  a  wise  and  liberal  system  of  police, 
by  which  property  and  life  and  the  peace  of  society  are  secured.  We 
hope  to  excite  a  feeling  of  responsibility  and  a  sense  of  character, 
by  enlarging  the  capacity  and  increasing  the  sphere  of  intellectual 
enjoyment.  By  general  instruction,  we  seek,  as  far  as  possible, 
to  purify  the  whole  moral  atmosphere  ;  to  keep  good  sentiments 
uppermost,  and  to  turn  the  strong  current  of  feeling  and  opinion,  as 
well  as  the  censures  of  the  law  and  the  denunciation  of  religion, 
against  immorality  and  crime.  Education,  to  accomplish  the  ends  of 
good  government,  should  be  universally  diffused. — Daniel  Webster. 


THE    PARAGRAPH.  167 

Make  four  paragraphs  out  of  the  following  selection : 

Poetry  is  the  record  of  the  best  and  happiest  moments  of  the  happiest 
and  best  minds.     We  are  aware  of  evanescent  visitations  of  thought 
and  feeling,   sometimes  associated  with  place  or  person,   sometimes 
regarding  our  own  mind  alone,  and  always  arising  unforeseen  and  de- 
parting unbidden,  but  elevating  and  delightful  beyond  all  expression  ; 
so  that  even  in  the  desire  and  the  regret  they  leave,  there  cannot  but 
be  pleasure,  participating  as  it  does  in  the  nature  of  its  object.     It  is, 
as  it  were,  the  interpenetration  of  a  diviner  nature  through  our  own  ; 
but  its  footsteps  are  like  those  of  a  wind  over  the  sea,  which  the  com- 
ing calm  erases,  and  whose  traces  remain  only,  as  on  the  wrinkled 
sand  which  paves  it.     These  and  corresponding  conditions  of  being 
are  experienced  principally  by  those  of  the  most  delicate  sensibility 
and  the  most  enlarged  imagination  ;  and  the  state  of  mind  produced  by 
them  is  at  war  with  every  base  desire.     The  enthusiasm  of  virtue,  love, 
patriotism,  and  friendship  is  essentially  linked  with  such  emotions  ; 
and  whilst  they  last,  self  appears  as  what  it  is,  an  atom  to  a  universe. 
Poets  are  not  only  subject  to  these  experiences  as  spirits  of  the  most 
refined  organization,  but  they  can  color  all  that  they  combine  with 
the  evanescent  hues  of  this  ethereal  world.      A  word,  a  trait,  in  the 
representation  of  a  scene  or  a  passion  will  touch  the  enchanted  chord, 
and  reanimate,  in  those  who  have  ever  experienced  these  emotions, 
the  sleeping,   the  cold,   the  buried  image  of  the  past.      Poetry  thus 
makes  immortal  all  that  is  best  and  most  beautiful  in  the  world  ;  it 
arrests  the  vanishing  apparitions  which  haunt  the  interlineations  of 
life,  and,  veiling  them,  or  in  language  or  in  form,  sends  them  forth 
among  mankind,   bearing  sweet  news  of  kindred  joy  to  those  with 
whom  their  sisters  abide — abide,  because  there  is  no  portal  of  expres- 
sion from  the  caverns  of  the  spirit  which  they  inhabit  into  the  universe 
of  things.      Poetry  redeems  from  decay  the  visitations  of  the  divinity 
in  man. — Shelly. 


EXERCISE   XXII. 
Faulty  Diction. 

Man,  in  fact,  only  obtains  the  use  of  his  faculties  in  obtaining  the 
use  of  speech,  for  language  is  the  indispensable  means  of  the  devel- 
opment of  his  natural  powers,   whether  intellectual  or  moral. — Sir 
William  Hamilton. 

The  right  use  of  words  is  not  a  matter  to  be  left  to  pedants  and 
pedagogues.  It  belongs  to  the  daily  life  of  every  man.  The  misuse 
of  words  confuses  ideas,  and  impairs  the  value  of  language  as  a  means 
of  communication.  Hence  loss  of  time,  of  money,  and  sore  trial  of 
patience.  It  is  significant  that  we  call  a  quarrel  a  misunderstanding. 
— Richard  Grant  White. 

11 1  went  to  the  club  last  night,"  writes  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  in 
one  of  those  delightful  letters  of  his  to  John  Lothrop  Motley,  "and 
met  some  of  the  friends  you  always  like  to  hear  of.  I  sat  by  the  side 
of  Emerson,  who  always  charms  me  with  his  delicious  voice,  his  fine 
sense  and  wit,  and  the  delicate  way  he  steps  about  among  the  words 
of  his  vocabulary, — if  you  have  seen  a  cat  picking  her  footsteps  in  wet 
weather,  you  have  seen  the  picture  of  Emerson's  exquisite  intelligence, 
feeling  for  its  phrase  or  epithet.  Sometimes  I  think  of  an  ant-eater 
singling  out  his  insects,  as  I  see  him  looking  about  and  at  last  seizing 
his  noun  or  adjective, — the  best,  the  only  one  that  would  serve  the 
need  of  his  thought.1' — Life  and  Letters  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

You  might  read  all  the  books  in  the  British  Museum  (if  you  could 
live  long  enough),  and  still  remain  an  utterly  "illiterate,"  uneducated 
person  ;  but  if  you  read  ten  pages  of  a  good  book,  letter  by  letter, — 
that  is  to  say,  with  real  accuracy, — you  are  forevermore  in  some  meas- 
ure an  educated  person.  ...  A  well-educated  gentleman  may  not 
know  many  languages, — may  not  be  able  to  speak  any  but  his  own, 
— may  have  read  very  few  books.  But  whatever  language  he  knows 
he  knows  precisely. — John  Buskin. 
168 


FAULTY   DICTION.  169 

An  accurate  knowledge  and  a  correct  and  felicitous  use  of  words 
are.  of  themselves,  almost  sure  proofs  of  good  breeding.  No  doubt  it 
marks  a  weak  mind  to  care  more  for  the  casket  than  for  the  jewel  it 
contains — to  prefer  elegantly  turned  sentences  to  sound  sense  ;  but 
sound  sense  always  acquires  additional  value  when  expressed  in  pure 
English.  Moreover,  he  who  carefully  studies  accuracy  of  expression, 
the  proper  choice  and  arrangement  of  words  in  any  language,  will  be 
also  advancing  towards  accuracy  of  thought  as  well  as  towards  pro- 
priety and  energy  of  speech,  "for  divers  philosophers  hold,"  says 
Shakespeare,  "that  the  lip  is  parcel  of  the  mind."  Few  things  are 
more  ludicrous  than  the  blunders  by  which  even  persons  moving  in 
refined  society  often  betray  the  grossest  ignorance  of  very  common 
words. —  William  Mathews. 

The  English  language  abounds  in  synonyms,  or  words  of 
similar,  but  not  quite  identical,  meaning.  These  words 
must  be  carefully  distinguished,  for  on  the  understanding  of 
these  differences  is  based  the  mastery  of  English. 

The  following  brief  discussion  of  the  right  and  the  wrong 
use  of  words  is  given  in  the  hope  that  it  will  call  the  atten- 
tion of  the  pupil  to  the  importance  of  choosing  the  right 
word  and  stimulate  him  to  a  further  study  of  this  subject. 

In  the  choice  of  words,  we  have  to  consider  the  selection 
of  such  words  as  express,  with  accuracy,  what  is  meant, 
their  adaptability  to  the  writer's  purpose,  and  their  appro- 
priateness to  the  matter  in  hand. 

The  following  books  of  reference  should  be  found  on 
every  teacher's  desk :  "  The  Verbalist,"  by  Alfred  Ayres ; 
"Words  and  their  Uses,"  by  Richard  Grant  White; 
"Words,  their  Use  and  Abuse,"  by  William  Mathews; 
"Synonyms,  Antonyms,  and  Prepositions,"  by  James  E. 
Fernald. 


170  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

TO  THE  TEACHER:  The  examples  of  faulty 
diction  here  given,  though  few,  are  sufficient  to 
illustrate  the  clauses  of  faulty  usage  the  pupil  should 
guard  against. 

Require  the  pupil  to  use  the  words  briefly  dis- 
cussed in  this  lesson  in  original  sentences.  Require 
him  to  bring  to  the  class  other  words  that  are  often 
misused  and  show  why  one  should  be  chosen  in 
preference  to  the  other.  This  subject  can  be  indefi- 
nitely enlarged  by  the  teacher. 

And.  And  is  often  misused  for  to  ;  as,  "  Come  and  see 
me."  "  Try  and  do  what  you  can  for  him."  "  Go  and  see 
your  brother."     In  such  sentences  use  fo,  not  and. 

All  over.  "The  disease  spread  all  over  the  country." 
Say  "  The  disease  spread  over  all  the  country." 

Adjective,  Adverb.  If  a  phrase  denoting  manner  could 
be  substituted,  the  adverb  should  be  used  ;  but  if  some  part 
of  the  verb  to  be  could  be  employed  as  a  connective,  the  ad- 
jective is  required  ;  as,  "  The  physician  felt  his  pulse  care- 
fully [that  is,  in  a  careful  manner]  and  observed  that  the 
patient's  hand  felt  cold  [that  is,  was  cold  to  the  touch]." 
It  is  correct  to  say,  "  He  feels  sad."  "  It  looks  bad."  "  It 
smells  sweet." 

Apprehend,  Comprehend.  Apprehend  is  often  misused 
for  comprehend.  Perception  apprehends;  conception  com- 
prehends. Both  express  an  effort  of  the  thinking  faculty. 
To  apprehend  is  simply  to  take  an  idea  into  the  mind ;  to 
comprehend  an  idea  is  fully  to  understand  it  in  its  various 
relations  to  what  is  already  in  the  mind. 

Apt,  Liable,  Likely.  Apt  implies  natural  fitness  or  ten- 
dency ;  as,  "  He  is  an  apt  scholar."     "  An  impetuous  person 


FAULTY   DICTION.  171 

is  apt  to  speak  sharply.1'  Likely  is  used  of  a  contingent 
event  that  is  probable,  and,  usually,  favorable;  as,  uAn 
industrious  student  is  likely  to  succeed."  Liable  refers  to 
an  unfavorable  contingency ;  as,  "  The  ship  is  liable  to  sink 
at  any  time." 

Angry,  Mad.  Angry  means  roused  by  indignation  or 
resentment ;  mad  usually  means  disordered  in  mind,  lunatic, 
insane.  It  is  well  to  preserve  the  distinction  between  these 
words,  though  some  of  our  best  writers  use  mad  in  the  sense 
of  angry. 

Authentic,  Genuine.  Genuine  means  true  or  real  as  op- 
posed to  what  is  spurious  or  supposititious ;  authentic,  that 
which  possesses  authority  or  is  trustworthy.  A  book  whose 
statements  on  any  subject  are  in  accordance  with  facts  is 
authentic;  a  book  is  genuine  if  written  by  the  author  to 
whom  it  is  attributed,  but  may  be  absolutely  unreliable. 

Above.  Frequently  used  as  an  adjective,  as  in  uthe 
above  statement,"  "  the  above  incidents  did  not  occur  as  was 
stated  in  the  despatch."  If  the  statement  is  something  that 
is  previously  mentioned  in  the  text  it  is  better  to  say  "  the 
foregoing"  or  "  the  preceding  statement."  If  reference  is 
made  to  incidents  outside  the  text  that  have  been  men- 
tioned previously  to  what  is  now  being  said,  "  the  above-men- 
tioned facts,"  "  the  incidents  related  above"  may  be  used. 

Alone,  Solitary.  Alone  means  unaccompanied,  single. 
A  traveller  without  companions  is  alone.  Solitary  refers 
more  to  one's  mental  or  social  isolation  from  surrounding 
affairs  or  people.  "  Solitude  is  not  measured  by  the  miles 
of  space  that  intervene  between  a  man  and  his  fellows. 


172  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

The  really  diligent  student  in  one  of  the  crowded  hives  of 
Cambridge  College  is  as  solitary  as  a  dervis  in  the  desert." 

Avocation,  Vocation.  Vocation  means  one's  regular 
calling  or  business,  as  banking,  printing ;  avocation  is  that 
which  furnishes  amusement  or  pleasure  aside  from  regular 
business,  as  music,  hunting.  A  man's  vocation  may  be 
printing,  and  his  avocation  amateur  photography.  "The 
work  has  been  prepared  chiefly  in  the  leisure  taken  from 
active  duties,  and  from  time  to  time  has  been  delayed  by 
other  avocations.1'' 

Allude,  Mention,  Refer.  Allude  is  very  frequently  mis- 
used for  mention,  refer.  We  allude  to  events  or  to  things 
when  we  do  not  distinctly  mention  or  directly  refer  to  them. 
Allusion  implies  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  on  the  part  of 
the  reader  or  the  hearer.  "  He  was  not  familiar  with  the 
allusions  of  English  literature,  and  had  often  to  consult  the 
dictionary."  "  The  lecturer  did  not  refer  to  the  incidents  of 
the  Crimean  War." 

Aggravate,  Provoke.  Aggravate  signifies  to  make  heavy, 
to  make  worse,  as  "aggravating  circumstances"  in  criminal 
law  phrase  means  circumstances  that  increase  the  gravity 
of  a  crime.  Provoke  means  to  act  in  a  way  to  excite  anger 
or  resentment. 

Among  one  another.  "  They  exchanged  confidences 
among  one  another."  Say  "among  themselves"  or  "with 
one  another." 

At,  in.  Use  at  if  the  place  is  regarded  as  a  point ;  in,  if 
it  is  inclusive ;  as,  "  We  arrived  at  Paris."  "  He  lives  in 
London."  Say  "  Where  is  it?"  not  "  Where  is  it  a*.*"— the 
at  is  redundant. 


FAULTY   DICTION.  173 

And,  or.  And  is  often  used  where  or  is  required  ;  as,  "  A 
language  like  the  French  and  German  contains  as  many 
words."  "A  language  like  the  French  or  the  German," 
since  no  language  is  at  once  French  and  German. 

Approach,  Address,  Petition.  Do  not  use  approach  for 
address  or  petition.  Approach  is  often  used  in  a  bad  sense, 
implying  the  use  of  bribery  or  intrigue.  "  The  teachers 
petitioned  the  superintendent  for  longer  intermissions,"  not 
approached  or  addressed  him. 

Ain't.  A  modification  of  am  not,  or  are  not.  Always  in- 
elegant— a  vulgarism. 

Awful,  Awfully.  Colloquial  slang,  for  very  or  exceedingly  ; 
as,  "  An  awfully  jolly  crowd ;"  "  an  awful  good  time ;" 
"  awfully  nice." 

Answer,  Reply.  Discriminate  in  the  use  of  these  two 
words.  We  answer  a  question,  and  reply  to  an  assertion. 
We  answer  letters  and  reply  to  arguments  they  may  contain. 

Back  out.     An  Americanism  for  retreat.     Say  retreat. 

Been  to.  "  Where  have  you  been  tof  Omit  the  super- 
fluous to. 

Both.  This  word  is  redundant  in  the  following  sentences : 
"  They  both  resemble  each  other  very  much."  "  They  are 
both  alike."  "  They  both  met  in  the  street."  Its  use  in  the 
foregoing  sentences  is  absurb. 

Big,  Great.  Big  is  often  misused  for  great;  as,  "  He  is  a 
big  man,"  instead  of  a  great  man.  A  big  man  may  be  very 
far  from  being  a  great  man. 


174  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

But  what  should  not  be  used  for  but  that  in  such  ex- 
pressions as,  "  I  do  not  know  but  what  I  did."  Say  but  that 
I  did. 

But  yet  should  not  be  used  when  either  but  or  yet  is 
sufficient  by  itself;  as,  "Wealth  may  seek  us,  but  wisdom 
must  be  sought." 

But.  This  word  is  often  misused.  It  is  frequently  used 
for  that;  as,  "I  do  not  doubt  but  he  will  go;"  read  doubt 
that.  "  I  have  no  doubt  but  that  he  will  go  ;"  suppress  but. 
But  is  also  improperly  used  for  than ;  as,  "  No  other  re- 
source but  this  was  allowed  him  ;"  read,  than  this. 

Blame  it  on.  A  gross  and  inexcusable  vulgarism  which 
we  often  hear  from  persons  of  considerable  culture.  "  He 
blames  it  on  his  brother."  Say  accuses  or  suspects  his  brother 
of  having  done  it. 

Character,  Reputation.  A  man's  character  is  what  he 
essentially  is;  his  reputation,  what  folk  think  he  is.  Mr. 
John  Doe's  character  may  be  unequivocally  bad  and  his  rep- 
utation good,  or  the  reverse. 

Citizen  is  frequently  misused  for  person  by  newspaper 
writers  and  others  desirous  of  using  large  words  which  are 
"  full  of  sound  and  fury,  signifying  nothing."  Oiiizen  should 
be  used  only  when  speaking  of  persons  in  their  relations  as 
citizens,  in  distinction  from  officials. 

Compare  To  or  With.  We  compare  one  thing  with 
another  to  note  points  of  agreement  or  difference.  We  com- 
pare one  thing  to  another  which  we  believe  it  resembles. 

Circumstances — Under  or  In.  There  is  a  nice  distinc- 
tion in  the  use  of  prepositions  with  this  word.  When  the 
idea  to  be  conveyed  is  mere  situation  it  is  expressed  by  in 


FAULTY   DICTION.  175 

the  circumstances ;  action  affected  is  performed  under  the 
circumstances. 

Can,  May.  Can  is  often  misused  for  may.  Can  refers 
to  some  form  of  possibility  ;  may,  to  simple  permission  ;  as, 
"  Can  I  pass  the  guard  ?"  "  May  [not  can]  I  use  your  ruler  ?" 

Curious.  This  word  is  often  misused.  Curious  means 
inquisitive,  prying.  Its  use  instead  of  strange  or  remarkable 
is  common  ;  as,  "  A  curious  fact.1'  "  A  curious  proceeding.1' 
Say  a  remarkable  fact ;  a  strange  proceeding. 

Dirt,  Earth.  The  phrase,  "  a  dirt  road,1'  for  earth,  clay, 
gravel,  or  ground,  that  is,  an  unpaved  road,  is  entirely  inde- 
fensible. Dirt,  which  has  been  termed  "matter  out  of 
place,'1  means  filth.  Some  even  speak  of  "  clean  dirt," 
which  is  an  evident  contradiction  in  terms.  There  can  be 
no  such  thing. 

Differ  With,  From.  In  the  use  of  these  prepositions, 
some  writers  recognize  a  nice  distinction.  Both  phrases 
have  been  used  to  express  "  difference  in  opinion ;"  but 
differ  from  is  preferable  for  this,  as  differ  with  has  been  re- 
garded as  being  reserved  for  "  have  a  difference  with,"  that 
is,  a  conflicting  opinion.  Differ  from  is  always  to  be  used 
when  the  sense  is  "  different  from ;"  as,  "  Washington  dif- 
fered from  Hamilton  in  temperament,  but  did  not  differ 
with  him  in  political  theory." 

Don't,  a  contraction  of  do  not,  should  be  used  only  in 
the  first  person  singular  or  in  the  plural ;  as,  "  I  donH  know." 
"  They  donH  care."     "  He  doesn't  know  any  better." 

Enough,  Sufficient.  A  man  has  sufficient  when  he  has 
what  he  needs  ;  enough  when  he  has  all  he  desires.  A  miser 
may  have  sufficient,  but  never  has  enough  money. 


176  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Even  up.  A  slang  expression  much  used  in  the  South 
and  West,  signifying  "  to  get  even  with." 

Equally  as  well.  A  common  redundancy.  Omit  the  as. 
Say  equally  well  or  quite  as  well. 

Elegant,  Splendid.  These  words  are  very  frequently 
used  when  the  speaker  means  to  say  fine,  as  in  such  expres- 
sions as  "  an  elegant  day,"  "  a  splendid  piece  of  roast  beef." 
Splendid  is  from  a  Latin  adjective,  splendidus,  meaning  bright, 
shining,  brilliant.  A  jeweller's  tray  of  diamonds  may  be 
splendid;  the  sun  is  splendid.  Elegant  means  marked  by 
refinement,  exhibiting  taste  and  delicacy  of  finish ;  as,  u  He 
had  not  expected  to  find  so  much  taste  for  elegant  literature 
in  an  old  village  deacon." 

Education.  "  This  is  one  of  the  most  misused  of  words. 
A  man  may  be  well  acquainted  with  the  contents  of  text- 
books, and  yet  be  a  person  of  little  education;  on  the  other 
hand,  a  man  may  be  a  person  of  good  education,  and  yet 
know  little  of  the  contents  of  text-books.  Abraham  Lincoln 
and  Edwin  Forrest  knew  comparatively  little  of  what  is 
generally  learned  in  schools  ;  still  they  were  men  of  culture, 
men  of  education.  A  man  may  have  ever  so  much  book- 
knowledge  and  still  be  a  boor ;  but  a  man  cannot  be  a  per- 
son of  good  education  and  not  be — so  far  as  manner  is 
concerned — a  gentleman.  Education,  then,  is  the  whole  of 
which  Instruction  and  Breeding  are  the  parts.  The  man  or 
the  woman — even  in  this  democratic  country  of  ours — who 
deserves  the  title  of  gentleman  or  lady  is  always  a  person  of 
education  ;  i.e.,  he  or  she  has  a  sufficient  acquaintance  with 
books  and  with  the  usages  of  social  intercourse  to  acquit 
himself  or  herself  creditably  in  the  society  of  cultivated  peo- 
ple.    Not  moral  worth,  nor  learning,  nor  wealth,  nor  all 


FAULTY   DICTION.  177 

three  combined,  can  unaided  make  a  gentleman,  for  with 
all  three  a  man  might  be  uneducated, — coarse,  unbred,  un- 
schooled in  those  things  which  alone  make  men  welcome  in 
the  society  of  the  refined. — Alfred  Ayres. 

Except,  Unless.  Except  is  often  used  when  unless  should 
be  used ;  as,  "  No  one  need  apply  except  he  is  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  business."  No  one  need  apply  unless 
he  is  familiar  with  the  business. 

Either.  This  word  means  the  one  or  the  other  of  two. 
"  Give  me  either  of  them," — that  is,  give  me  the  one  or  the 
other  of  two.  We  should  not  say,  "  Give  me  either"  in 
referring  to  more  than  two. 

From,  Of.  From  is  often  misused  for  of;  as,  "  He  died 
from  cholera."  Say,  he  died  of  cholera.  We  may  say  he 
died  from  the  effects  of  cholera. 

Fetch,  Carry,  Bring.  Fetch  means  to  go  and  bring,  hence 
it  is  clearly  wrong  to  use  such  expressions  as  "  go  and  fetch 
me  a  drink  of  water."  Carry  often  implies  the  meaning 
from,  and  is  followed  by  the  preposition  away  and  from, 
thus  being  opposed  to  fetch  and  bring. 

Friend,  Acquaintance.  "  &  friend  is  one  with  whom  you 
may  be  sincere  ;"  an  acquaintance  may  be  one  about  whom 
you  know  little.  One  may  have  few  friends,  but  many  ac- 
quaintances ;  hence,  he  who  is  desirous  to  call  things  by 
their  right  names  will,  as  a  rule,  use  the  word  acquaintance 
instead  of  friend. 

Got.     Do  not  say  "  I  have  got"  when  you  mean  merely 

that  you  have  possession  of  something.     Got  means  to  obtain 

when  one  strives  for  anything  ;  as,  "  He  got  the  book  offered 

as  a  prize  through  his  earnest  efforts." 

12 


178  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Good,  Great.  Good  is  often  improperly  used  for  great. 
Good  means  having  admirable  moral  or  spiritual  qualities  ; 
righteous,  virtuous,  religious ;  great  means  unusually  large 
mass  or  magnitude ;  big ;  vast ;  containing  many  units. 
The  use  of  good  instead  of  great  is  clearly  improper  in  the 
following  sentences :  "  I  have  a  good  many  sheep."  "  A 
good  number  were  present."  "  She  has  a  good  number  of 
bad  boys." 

Hurry,  Haste.  Haste  denotes  rapidity  of  motion,  merely. 
Hurry  implies  confusion  as  well  as  rapidity.  A  person  may 
hasten  a  work  without  affecting  its  accuracy  or  elegance ; 
but  to  hurry  carries  with  it  an  idea  of  confusion,  laxity  of 
execution,  and  resulting  inelegance. 

How  should  never  be  used  to  ask  for  the  repetition  of  a 
word  or  a  sentence. 

Had,  Have.  A  vulgarism  of  the  worst  description. 
These  two  auxiliary  verbs  should  never  be  used  together. 
"  Had  I  have  known  it,"  "  Had  you  have  seen  it,"  instead  of 
"  Had  I  known  it."     "  Had  you  seen  it." 

Hain't.     A  common  and  inexcusable  vulgarism. 

Had  ought.  "  He  had  ought  to  go."  Omit  the  had. 
Ought  says  all  that  had  ought  says. 

Healthy,  Wholesome.  Healthy  means  having  health ; 
wholesome  means  tending  to  promote  health.  Say  "  Onions 
are  wholesome  vegetables,"  not  healthy  vegetables.  A  man 
maybe  healthy;  the  food  he  eats,  if  not  deleterious,  is 
wholesome. 

How,  That.  "  I  have  heard  how  in  Italy  one  is  beset  on 
all  sides  by  beggars ;"  read  heard  that.     How  means  the 


FAULTY   DICTION.  179 

manner  in  which.     How  should  never  be  used  instead  of  the 
substantive-conjunction  that. 

In,  Into.  Often  misused.  In  denotes  position,  state ; 
into,  tendency,  direction ;  as,  "  I  threw  the  stone  into  the 
water,  and  it  lies  in  the  water."  "  Come  into  [not  in]  the 
house.11  Where  no  object  is  expressed,  we  may  use  in;  as, 
11  Come  tii."     "  Go  m." 

If.  "  I  doubt  if  this  will  every  reach  you.11  Say,  whether 
this  will  ever  reach  you. 

Ill,  Sick.  Both  words  refer  to  disordered  physical  con- 
dition. Sick,  however,  is  the  stronger  word,  and  generally 
the  better  word  to  use. 

In  so  far  as.  "A  want  of  opportunity  would  suffice,  in 
so  far  as  the  want  could  be  shown.'1     The  in  is  not  needed. 

Like,  As.    Do  not  say,  "  He  thinks  like  I  do,11  but  as  I  do. 

Lend,  Loan.  Lend  is  a  verb  ;  loan,  a  noun.  "  He  en- 
deavored to  secure  a  loan."    "  They  are  said  to  lend  money. " 

Less,  Fewer.  The  following  sentence,  from  a  prominent 
school  journal,  contains  a  very  common,  but  inexcusable 
blunder;  "There  were  not  less  than  three  hundred  and 
fifty  teachers  in  attendance.11  This  should  be  "  not  fewer.11 
Less  is  used  in  speaking  of  quantity ;  as,  "  There  was  less 
wheat  in  the  second  than  in  the  first  bin.11  Fewer  is  used  of 
number;  as,  "Not fewer  than  sixty  thousand  people  visited 
the  city  during  the  celebration  of  our  great  victories.11 

Love,  Like.  Love  should  never  be  used  for  like.  Both 
words  express  a  fondness  for  and  a  pleasure  in  something, 
but  love  expresses  something  more — a  spirit  of  devotion  to, 


180  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

a  readiness  to  sacrifice  to  obtain,  or  to  serve,  what  we  love. 
"  He  loves  his  country,  his  mother,  and  his  wife."  "  He 
likes  peaches  and  pumpkin  pie.1' 

Lay,  Lie.  Lay  is  a  transitive  verb  ;  lie,  intransitive.  Lay 
means  "  to  put  down ;"  lie  means  to  rest.  Lie,  being  in- 
transitive, never  has  an  object.  The  presence  or  absence  of 
an  object,  and  the  character  of  the  verb  as  transitive  or  in- 
transitive may  be  decided  by  asking  the  question,  "  Lay  (or 
laid)  what?"  "  We  say  a  man  lays  brick."  "  A  ship  lies  at 
anchor."  "  I  must  lie  down."  "  I  must  lay  myself  down." 
In  short,  lay  always  expresses  transitive  action,  and  lie,  rest. 

Learn,  Teach.  To  learn  is  to  take  instruction  ;  to  teach 
is  to  give  instruction.  "  The  ladies  at  the  college  learned 
many  poor  girls  to  make  their  own  clothing."  Read,  taught 
the  poor  girls ;  the  girls  learned.  The  uncultured  often 
misuse  learn  for  teach. 

Looks  beautifully.  The  adjective  beautiful  should  be 
used.  "  Looks  beautifully"  is  genteel  bad  grammar.  We 
can  say  she  looks  sweet,  or  beautiful,  or  charming.  That  is, 
to  the  observer  her  appearance  is  sweet  or  beautiful  or 
charming. 

Mutual.  Mutual  is  properly  used  in  the  sense  of  recipro- 
cal; hence  it  is  an  error  to  speak  of  a  "  mutual  friend."  Say 
common  friend.  Two  authors  may  have  a  mutual  admi- 
ration for  each  other,  but  a  society  of  literary  men  would 
have  a  common  admiration  for  one  another. 

Merely,  Simply.  Merely  implies  no  addition ;  simply, 
no  complication  ;  as,  "  The  boys  were  there  merely  as  spec- 
tators ;  it  is  simply  incredible  that  they  should  have  disgraced 
themselves  so." 


FAULTY   DICTION.  181 

Mere.  This  word  is  frequently  misused  ;  "  It  is  true  of 
men  as  of  God,  that  words  merely  meet  with  no  response." 
The  writer  meant  that  mere  words  met  with  no  response. 

Make  up  their  mind.  Some  people  never  decide,  or  con- 
clude, to  do  anything  ;  they  "make  up  their  mind" 

Neglect,  Negligence .  Neglect  refers  to  an  act  or  a  suc- 
cession of  acts  ;  negligence  refers  to  the  act  or  habit  of  neg- 
lecting that  which  ought  to  be  done. 

Nice.  This  has  been  aptly  termed  the  social  adjective. 
It  is  used  by  some  to  express  every  qualification  imaginable, 
as  a  nice  day,  a  nice  time,  a  nice  man.  The  proper  meaning 
is  delicate,  exact ;  as,  a  nice  distinction  in  words. 

Nicely.  "  How  do  you  do  ?"  "  Nicely"  "  How  are 
you  ?"  "  Nicely."  This  use  of  the  word  is  the  quintessence 
of  popinjay  vulgarity. 

No  use.    "  It  was  no  use  to  argue  with  him."    Say,  of  no  use. 

Neither,  Nor.  Neither  is  often  misused  by  writers  of 
ability  ;  as,  "  He  would  neither  give  wine,  nor  oil,  nor  money." 
The  conjunction  should  be  placed  before  the  excluded  ob- 
jects ;  as,  "  He  would  give  neither  wine,  nor  oil,  nor  money." 
"  She  can  neither  help  her  beauty,  nor  her  courage,  nor  her 
cruelty."     Say,  she  can  help  neither,  etc. 

Not.  Care  should  be  used  in  placing  not.  The  correla- 
tive of  not  when  it  stands  in  the  first  member  of  a  sentence 
is  nor  or  neither  ;  as,  "Not  for  thy  ivory  nor  thy  gold  will  I 
unbind  thy  chain," — not,  or  thy  gold.  "  I  will  not  do  it, 
neither  shall  you," — not,  or  shall  you. 

Off  of.  One  of  these  words  is  superfluous.  "  Give  me  a 
yard  off  of  this  piece  of  cloth.     Say,  give  me  a  yard  off  this 


182  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

piece  of  cloth,  or  of  this  piece  of  cloth.     "  The  peach  fell 
off  of  the  tree  ;"  read,  fell  o^fthe  tree. 

Often.  Often,  oftener,  oftenest,  the  proper  comparison. 
The  regular  comparison  is  certainly  more  euphonious  than 
more  often  and  most  often. 

On  to.  Omit  the  to.  We  get  on  a  chair,  on  a  stump,  and 
not  on  to  a  chair,  a  stump,  etc. 

Ought,  Should.  Each  of  these  words  implies  obligation. 
Ought  is  the  stronger  term.  What  we  ought  to  do  we  are 
morally  bound  to  do.  We  ought  to  love  our  neighbors 
as  we  love  ourselves,  and  should  be  respectful  to  every  one. 

Other.  This  word  is  often  omitted  when  its  use  would 
make  clearer  the  meaning  intended.  Other  means  different 
from  the  one  specified,  not  the  same.  "  No  man  can  do  as 
well."  This  expression  includes  the  person  to  whom  refer- 
ence is  made.     "  No  other  man  can  do  as  well,"  is  meant. 

Only.  The  qualifying  word  only  has  its  place  strictly  as- 
signed by  the  laws  of  expression,  and  this  place  is  easily 
found  on  analyzing  the  sentence  in  which  the  word  occurs ; 
yet  notwithstanding  this  simple  test  of  its  proper  place  no 
other  word  in  the  English  language  is  more  frequently  mis- 
placed. According  to  the  position  of  only,  the  same  words 
may  be  made  to  express  very  different  meanings  ;  as,  "  The 
drama,  upon  which  the  curtain  had  only  fallen  a  short  time 
since,  was  '  Money.1 "  Here  only  is  misplaced,  for  the  au- 
thor meant  to  say,  had  fallen  only  a  short  time.  Placed 
before  fallen  it  modifies  that  word  contrary  to  the  writer's 
intention.  "  In  its  pages,  papers  of  sterling  merit  only  will 
appear ;"  read  only  papers  of  sterling  merit.  "  Things  are 
getting  dull  down  in  Texas  ;  they  only  shot  three  men  down 


FAULTY   DICTION.  183 

there  last  week  ;"  read,  they  shot  only  three  men,  etc.  "  I 
only  have  three  tickets  ;"  read,  only  three  tickets.  Place 
only  immediately  before  the  word  or  words  you  mean  to 
qualify.  The  beauty  and  strength  and  clearness  of  a  sen- 
tence depend  quite  as  much  on  a  proper  arrangement  of  the 
grammatical  terms  as  on  the  choice  of  words  used  to  express 
the  thought.  Grammars,  rhetorics,  examples  of  faulty  dic- 
tion, and  suggestions  from  the  ablest  critics  can  only  assist 
the  pupil  in  his  struggle  to  dislodge  the  incorrect  and  ver- 
bose habits  of  expression  acquired  in  the  home  and  firmly 
established  by  long  usage.  "  Of  all  the  faults  to  be  found 
in  writing,  misplaced  words,"  says  Cobbett,  "  is  the  most 
common,  and  perhaps  it  leads  to  the  greatest  number  of 
mistakes.  All  the  words  may  be  the  proper  words  to  be 
used  upon  the  occasion,  and  yet,  by  a  misplacing  of  a  part  of 
them,  the  meaning  may  be  wholly  destroyed ;  and  even 
made  to  be  the  contrary  of  what  it  ought  to  be.1'  Thinking, 
vigorous,  courageous  thinking  and  revision  are  the  only  re- 
liable remedies  for  the  cure  of  verbosity  and  the  use  of 
incorrect  expressions. 

Only  too  willing.  This  phrase  is  supplanting  the  simple 
word  willing.  "  I  should  like  well,"  or  "  It  would  please 
me,"  is  preferable. 

Proven.  This  is  an  incorrect  form — a  Scotticism — for 
proved,  the  perfect  participle  of  prove.  Say,  "  The  proposi- 
tion was  proved  by  John,"  not  "  was  proven." 

Propose,  Purpose.  Propose  means  to  offer  for  consider- 
ation, as  plans,  and  so  forth.  Purpose  means  to  intend,  to 
design ;  as,  u  I  purpose  to  write  a  history  of  England  from 
the  accession  of  King  James  the  Second  down  to  a  time 
within  the  memory  of  living  men." — Macaulay. 


184  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Plead.  This  is  an  erroneous  form  for  pleaded.  "  He 
pleaded  to  be  allowed  to  go,"  not  "  he  plead." 

Per.  This  is  a  Latin  preposition,  and  should  always  be 
followed  by  the  Latin  word ;  as  per  diem,  per  annum,  not 
per  day  or  per  year. 

Portion,  Part.  These  words  are  not  interchangeable. 
"  A  large  portion  of  the  building  was  destroyed  by  fire"  is 
incorrect,  because  a  portion  means  a  part  set  aside  for  some 
special  purpose,  or  for  consideration  by  itself. 

Party,  Person.  Party  is  often  misused.  Party  means 
any  one  of  two  or  more  bodies  of  people  contending  for  an- 
tagonistic opinions  or  politics  ;  a  number  of  persons  assem- 
bled for  social  entertainment.  Person  means  a  human  being, 
an  individual. 

Procure,  Secure.  Procure  means  to  come  into  possession 
or  enjoyment  of  by  some  effort  or  means.  Seeure  means  to 
make  secure  against  risk  or  loss ;  to  fasten,  or  confine  as 
against  escape  or  loss.  We  procure  meal  tickets  at  some 
hotels,  but  secure  ourselves  against  loss  by  fire  by  insurance. 

Proof,  Evidence.  Proof  means  the  establishment  of  a 
fact  by  evidence  ;  evidence  makes  clear  or  plain.  The  word 
proof  is  often  misused  for  evidence;  as,  "  What  proof  have 
you  to  offer  in  the  case  ?"  "  What  evidence  have  you  to  offer 
in  proof  of  the  truth  of  your  statements  ?" 

Procure,  Get.  Procure  is  often  misused  forget  by  persons 
who  strive  to  be  fine;  as,  "Where  did  you  procure  it?" 
Better,  "Where  did  you  get  it?" 

Promise,  Assure.  Promise  is  sometimes  misused  for 
assure;  as,  "I promise  you  I  was  very  much  astonished;" 


FAULTY   DICTION.  185 

read,  I  assure  you,  etc.     Promise  means  to  engage  to  do  or 
not  to  do ;  assure  means  to  give  confidence  to,  to  convince. 

Partly,  Partially.  Partly,  meaning  in  part,  is  preferable 
to  'partially,  since  the  latter  also  means  with  partiality. 

Present,  Introduce.  By  those  who  are  always  striving 
to  "  show  off"  the  word  present  is  frequently  used  for  intro- 
duce. Present  means  to  face  in  the  presence  of  an  emperor ; 
introduce  means  to  bring  to  be  acquainted.  A  person  is 
presented  at  court  or  to  our  President ;  but  persons  who  are 
unknown  to  each  other  are  introduced. 

Quantity,  Number.  Quantity  is  often  improperly  used 
for  number.  Quantity  means  so  much  ;  number,  a  collection 
of  units.  We  use  quantity  in  speaking  of  what  is  measured, 
or  weighed  ;  number,  of  what  is  counted. 

Quite.  This  word  is  correctly  used  only  in  the  sense  of 
entire,  complete,  finished.  A  school  may  have  quite  a 
thousand  pupils,  that  is,  a  complete  or  full  thousand,  and 
still  be  not  quite,  or  entirely,  full.  Such  expressions  as  "  we 
had  quite  a  nice  time,"  "  she  is  quite  an  important  person," 
are  gross  vulgarisms. 

Rarely  or  ever.     Say,  rarely  if  ever. 

Raise,  Increase.  Raise  is  frequently  used  for  increase; 
as,  "A  landlord  notified  his  tenant  that  he  would  raise  his 
rent."  The  tenant's  reply  was,  "  I  thank  you,  I  find  it  very 
hard  to  raise  it  myself."  The  landlord  should  have  said, 
"  I  will  increase  your  rent." 

Such,  So.  "  I  never  before  saw  such  a  large  steeple." 
By  transposing  the  words  the  sentence  reads,  "I  never 
before  saw  a  steeple  such  large."  The  proper  word  to  use 
is  so.    "  I  never  saw  so  large  a  steeple." 


186  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Sure.     "  I'm  going  sure."     Say,  "  I'm  surely  going. 


17 


Since,  Ago.  Since  refers  to  recent  time ;  ago  to  past 
time  in  general ;  as,  "  I  brought  you  word  an  hour  since." 
"  The  Spanish  Armada  was  destroyed  off  the  coast  of  Eng- 
land long  ago." 

Stay,  Stop.  We  go  to  a  hotel  and  stay,  not  stop,  there. 
Stop  refers  merely  to  the  cessation  of  motion ;  stay  means 
to  sojourn,  to  continue  in  one  place. 

Set,  Sit.  In  strict  usage,  sit  is  always  intransitive  when 
referring  to  posture  ;  set,  transitive  ;  the  expressions  "  a  set- 
ting hen,"  for  "  a  sitting  hen,"  and  "  the  coat  sets  well,"  or 
ill,  as  the  case  may  be,  for  "  the  coat  fits,"  are  colloquialisms 
common  to  the  United  States,  where  it  is  by  many  thought 
pedantic  to  use  sit  in  these  senses.  Garments  sit,  hens  sit, 
and  the  wind  sits,  not  sets,  in  a  certain  quarter  ;  e.g.,  "  And 
look  how  well  my  garments  sit  upon  me,  much  feater  [more 
neatly]  than  before." — Shakespeare.  "  Now  sits  the  wind 
fair,  and  we  will  aboard."— Ibid.  In  Matthew  xxi.  4-7,  we 
learn  it  was  prophesied  that  Jesus  should  come  "  sitting  upon 
an  ass,"  so  the  disciples  fetched  a  colt  from  the  "  village 
over  against  them,"  and  "  they  set  him  thereon."  Also  see 
Jeremiah  xvii.  11:  "As  the  partridge  sitteth  on  eggs  and 
hatcheth  them  not." 

Shall,  Will.  Shall,  in  an  affirmative  sentence  in  the  first 
person,  and  will,  in  the  second  and  third  persons,  merely 
announce  future  action.  "  I  shall  go  to  town  to-morrow." 
u  I  shall  not ;  I  shall  wait  for  better  weather."  "  We  shall 
be  glad  to  see  you."  "  We  shall  set  out  early,  and  shall  try 
to  arrive  by  noon." 


FAULTY   DICTION.  187 

Shall,  in  an  affirmative  sentence  in  the  second  and  third 
persons,  announces  the  speaker's  intention  to  control.  Thus, 
"  You  shall  hear  me  out."  "  You  shall  go,  sick  or  well." 
"  He  shall  be  my  heir.1' 

Will,  in  the  first  person,  expresses  a  promise,  announces 
the  speaker's  intention  to  control,  proclaims  a  determination. 
Thus,  "  I  will  [I  promise  to]  assist  you.'1  "  I  will  [I  am  de- 
termined to]  have  my  right."  "  We  will  [We  promise  to] 
come  to  you  in  the  morning." — The  Verbalist. 

Scarcely,  Hardly.  Scarcely  pertains  to  quantity  ;  hardly 
to  degree  ;  as,  "  There  is  scarcely  a  bushel  of  wheat."  "  I 
shall  hardly  finish  my  job  by  nightfall." 

Seldom  or  ever  is  incorrect ;  better,  seldom  if  ever,  or 
seldom  or  never. 

Superfluous  Words.  A  careful  study  of  the  following 
paragraph,  taken  from  "  The  Verbalist,"  will  prove  helpful  to 
pupils  :  "  Whenever  I  try  to  write  well,  I  always  find  I  can 
do  it."  "I  shall  have  finished  by  the  latter  end  of  this  week." 
"  Iron  sinks  down  in  water."  "  He  combined  together  all  the 
facts."  "  My  brother  called  on  me,  and  we  both  took  a  walk." 
"  I  can  do  it  equally  as  well  as  he."  "  We  could  not  forbear 
from  doing  it."  "  Before  I  go,  I  must  first  be  paid."  "  We 
were  compelled  to  return  back."  "  We  forced  them  to  re- 
treat back  fully  a  mile."  "  His  conduct  was  approved  of  by 
everybody."  "They  conversed  together  for  a  long  time." 
"  The  balloon  rose  up  very  rapidly."  "  Give  me  another 
one."  "  Come  home  as  soon  as  ever  you  can."  "  Who  finds 
him  in  money  ?"  "  He  came  in  last  of  all."  "  He  has  got 
all  he  can  carry."  "What  have  you  gotf  "No  matter; 
I  have  got."     "  I  have  got  the  headache."     "  Have  you  got 


188  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

any  brothers  ?"     "  No  ;  but  I  have  got  a  sister."     All  the 
words  in  italics  are  superfluous. 

Think,  Believe.  Think  is  often  improperly  used  for 
believe.  To  think  means  to  form  by  mental  processes,  to 
review  in  mind  ;  to  believe  means  to  accept  as  true  on  tes- 
timony or  authority.  "  I  think  well  of  your  proposition." 
"  I  believe  that  George  Washington  was  a  great  and  good 
man  ;"  that  is,  I  accept  as  true  the  history  of  his  life. 

Take  on.  This  group  of  words  is  often  misused  for 
grieve  or  scold. 

Take  up  school.  This  phrase  is  often  misused  for  begin 
school.  "  School  took  up  at  nine  o'clock."  Say,  school  began 
at  nine  o'clock. 

They,  their,  them.  Each  of  these  words  is  often  misused 
in  such  expressions  as,  "  If  any  one  has  lost  a  book,  they  may 
inquire  for  it."  "  Every  one  must  get  their  own  lesson." 
Say,  his  or  her  lesson.  "  Them  examples  are  not  difficult." 
Say,  these  or  those  examples. 

This,  that  or  these,  those.  In  the  sense  of  former  and 
latter,  this  and  these  should  refer  to  the  latter  of  the  two 
things  mentioned  ;  that,  those  to  the  former. 

That  of.  "  He  chose  for  a  profession  that  of  the  law." 
Why  not  say,  "  He  chose  law  for  a  profession." 

Try,  Make.  Try  is  often  misused  for  make  ;  as,  "  Try  the 
experiment,"  for  "Make  the  experiment." 

Tantalize  means  to  tease  by  repeated  disappointments. 
Aggravate  should  never  be  used  for  irritate,  provoke,  or 
tantalize. 


FAULTY   DICTION.  189 

Taste  of.  The  of  is  superfluous.  We  taste  or  smell  a 
thing,  not  taste  of  nor  smell  of. 

Transpire,  Happen.  Transpire  is  frequently  misused  for 
happen.  Transpire  means,  literally,  to  ooze  out ;  as,  "  Trans- 
piration is  a  slow  flow  under  resistance."  Happen  means 
to  come,  occur,  or  exist  by  chance.  "  What  happened  at 
the  meeting  of  the  commissioners  has  not  yet  transpired." 

Upon,  on.  The  prevailing  tendency  is  towards  the  use  of 
the  simpler  on,  unless  the  idea  to  be  expressed  is  that  of 
actual  superposition  ;  as,  "  The  mason  places  one  stone  upon 
another."  We  call  on  a  friend,  make  speeches  on  subjects, 
write  on  various  questions,  and,  if  we  are  not  careful  in  our 
choice  of  prepositions,  find  that  "  one  woe  doth  tread  upon 
another's  heels,  so  fast  they  follow." — Shakespeare. 

Whole  of.  An  expression  that  should  not  be  used  in- 
stead of  whole,  entire,  before  a  plural  noun.  "  The  whole  of 
the  congregation  were  greatly  affected"  should  be  "the 
whole  [better,  entire']  congregation,"  etc.  Again,  "  The  whole 
of  the  committee  have  left"  should  be  "  all  the  committee," 
unless  it  is  desired  to  make  reference  only  to  such  of  the 
members  as  are  whole  in  body,  or  not  wanting  in  the  full 
number  of  limbs. 

"With,  By.  With  denotes  the  instrument ;  by  the  agent ; 
as,  "The  ditch  was  dug  by  the  gardener  with  a  spade." 

What,  That.  What  is  often  improperly  used  for  that; 
as,  "  He  would  not  believe  but  what  I  did  it ;"  read,  but  that. 
"  I  do  not  doubt  but  what  I  shall  go  to  St.  Louis  to-morrow  ;" 
read,  doubt  that. 


EXERCISE    XXIII. 

Selections  for  Study. 

I.    To  a  Waterfowl. 

1.  Whither,  'midst  falling  dew, 

While  glow  the  heavens  with  the  last  steps  of  day, 
Far,  through  their  rosy  depths,  dost  thou  pursue 
Thy  solitary  way  ! 

2.  Vainly  the  fowler's  eye 

Might  mark  thy  distant  flight  to  do  thee  wrong, 
As,  darkly  painted  on  the  crimson  sky, 
Thy  figure  floats  along. 

3.  Seek'st  thou  the  plashy  brink 

Of  weedy  lake,  or  marge  of  river  wide, 
Or  where  the  rocking  billows  rise  and  sink 
On  the  chafed  ocean-side  ? 

4.  There  is  a  Power  whose  care 

Teaches  thy  way  along  that  pathless  coast, — 
The  desert  and  illimitable  air, — 
Lone  wandering,  but  not  lost. 

5.  All  day  thy  wings  have  fanned, 

At  that  far  height,  the  cold,  thin  atmosphere  ; 
Yet  stoop  not,  weary,  to  the  welcome  land, 
Thousrh  the  dark  night  is  near. 


>r-  ■ 


6.  And  soon  that  toil  shall  end  : 

Soon  shalt  thou  find  a  summer  home,  and  rest 
And  scream  among  thy  fellows  :  reeds  shall  bend 

Soon  o'er  thy  shelter' d  nest. 
190 


SELECTIONS   FOR   STUDY.  191 

7.  Thou'rt  gone  !  the  abyss  of  heaven 

Hath  swallow' d  up  thy  form  ;  yet,  on  my  heart 
Deeply  hath  sunk  the  lesson  thou  hast  given, 
And  shall  not  soon  depart : 

8.  He  who,  from  zone  to  zone, 

Guides  through  the  boundless  sky  thy  certain  flight 

In  the  long  way  that  I  must  tread  alone, 

Will  lead  my  steps  aright. 

—  William  Cullen  Bryant. 

Analysis. 

NOTE. — The  outlines  here  presented  are  merely 
suggestive.  Pupils  should  be  encouraged  to  dis- 
cuss the  thoughts  of  the  authors  and  to  note 
carefully  the  forms  in  which  the  thoughts  are  ex- 
pressed ;  they  should  ever  bear  in  mind  that  gram- 
matical analysis  is  only  a  means  to  an  end.  Formal 
grammatical  analysis  should  be  accompanied  by 
thought  analysis  and  composition.  Language  is  a 
growth,  and,  like  every  other  growth,  is  primarily 
dependent  upon  an  inward  vital  energy.  It  has  its 
origin  and  its  development  in  answer  to  an  instinc- 
tive desire  of  the  soul  to  express  its  thoughts  and 
feelings.  It  must  be  understood  that  grammar  does 
not  make  laws  for  language.  It  merely  states  the 
facts  in  regard  to  the  right  use  of  language,  and  in 
an  orderly  way,  so  that  they  can  be  easily  referred 
to  and  learned.  Rules  'of  syntax  only  report  what  is 
regarded  as  good  English.  Incorrect  forms  of  ex- 
pression are  dislodged  only  by  using  correct  forms. 
Thinking  is  the  only  cure  for  faulty  English. 

First  Stanza. — What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  this  stanza  ? 
What  is  meant  by  principal  proposition  f  What  is  meant 
by  subordinate  proposition  f  Construe  'midst  falling  dew. 
What  part  of  speech  is  While  glow  the  heavens  ivith  the  last 
steps  of  day  f     Parse  Far,  Thy.     Why  say  solitary  way  f 


192  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Second  Stanza. — What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  this 
stanza  ?  Analyze  it.  What  is  meant  by  fowlers  eye  f 
Parse  Might  mark.  Parse  the  object  of  Might  mark.  Con- 
strue to  do  thee  wrong.  Construe  the  last  two  lines.  Parse 
As.     Construe  darkly  painted  on  the  crimson  sky. 

Third  Stanza. — What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  this  stanza  ? 
Name  the  objects  of  SeeFst.  Why  say  weedy  lake,  marge 
of  river  wide  f  Where  do  rocking  billoivs  rise  and  sink  f 
What  is  meant  by  chafed  ocean-side  f  Define  chafed  and 
use  it  in  a  sentence. 

Fourth  Stanza. — What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  this 
stanza  ?  Parse  There,  the  first  word.  Why  do  we  use  a 
capital  in  writing  Power  f  Construe  the  clause  beginning 
with  whose.  What  is  meant  by  pathless  coast  f  Construe 
the  third  line.     Define  illimitable.     Construe  the  last  line. 

Fifth  Stanza. — Parse  have  fanned,  day,  stoop.  Parse 
Yet,  weary.  Construe  to  the  welcome  land.  Why  say  wel- 
come land  f     Parse  Though,  is,  near. 

Sixth  Stanza. — What  toil  ?  Parse  shall  end,  shalt  find, 
scream.     Compare  Soon.     Why  say  sheltered  nest  ? 

Seventh  Stanza. — What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  Thou\t 
gone  I  Analyze  the  second  sentence.  Define  abyss. 
Parse  yet.  Parse  hath  sunk.  Parse  lesson.  What  lesson  f 
Construe  thou  hast  given. 

Eighth  Stanza. — What  kind  of  a  sentence  is  this  stanza? 
Read  aloud  the  principal  proposition.  Read  the  first  de- 
pendent proposition  ;  the  second.  Construe  from  zone,  to 
zone.  Define  zone.  Construe  In  the  long  way.  What  is 
meant  by  In  the  long  way  f  Why  is  the  relative  that  used, 
in  the  third  line  ?     Parse  aright. 


SELECTIONS    FOR    STUDY.  193 

II.    The  Sense  of  Beauty. 

1.  Beauty  is  an  all-pervading  presence.  It  unfolds  in  the  num- 
berless flowers  of  the  spring.  It  waves  in  the  branches  of  the  trees 
and  the  green  blades  of  grass.  It  haunts  the  depths  of  the  earth  and 
sea,  and  gleams  out  in  the  hues  of  the  shell  and  the  precious  stone. 

2.  And  not  only  these  minute  objects,  but  the  ocean,  the  moun- 
tains, the  clouds,  the  heavens,  the  stars,  the  rising  and  setting  sun, 
all  overflow  with  beauty.  The  universe  is  its  temple  ;  and  those  men 
who  are  alive  to  it  cannot  lift  their  eyes  without  feeling  themselves 
encompassed  with  it  on  every  side. 

3.  Now,  this  beauty  is  so  precious,  the  enjoyments  it  gives  are  so 
refined  and  pure,  so  congenial  with  our  tenderest  and  noblest  feelings, 
and  so  akin  to  worship,  that  it  is  painful  to  think  of  the  multitude  of 
men  as  living  in  the  midst  of  it,  and  living  almost  as  blind  to  it,  as 
if,  instead  of  this  fair  earth  and  glorious  sky,  they  were  tenants  of  a 
dungeon.  An  infinite  joy  is  lost  to  the  world  by  the  want  of  culture 
of  this  spiritual  endowment. 

4.  Suppose  that  I  were  to  visit  a  cottage,  and  to  see  its  walls  lined 
with  the  choicest  pictures  of  Raphael,  and  every  spare  nook  filled 
with  statues  of  the  most  exquisite  workmanship,  and  that  I  were  to 
learn  that  neither  man,  woman,  nor  child  ever  cast  an  eye  at  these 
miracles  of  art,  how  should  I  feel  their  privation  ;  how  should  I  want 
to  open  their  eyes,  and  to  help  them  to  comprehend  and  feel  the 
loveliness  and  grandeur  which  in  vain  courted  their  notice  ! 

5.  But  every  husbandman  is  living  in  sight  of  the  works  of  a  divine 
Artist ;  and  how  much  would  his  existence  be  elevated,  could  he  see 
the  glory  which  shines  forth  in  their  forms,  hues,  proportions,  and 
moral  expression  !  I  have  spoken  only  of  the  beauty  of  nature,  but 
how  much  of  this  mysterious  charm  is  found  in  the  elegant  arts,  and 
especially  in  literature  ? 

6.  The  best  books  have  most  beauty.  The  greatest  truths  are 
wronged  if  not  linked  with  beauty,  and  they  win  their  way  most 
surely  and  deeply  into  the  soul  when  arrayed  in  this  their  natural  and 
fit  attire. 

7.  Now,  no  man  receives  the  true  culture  of  a  man,  in  whom  the 

13 


194  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

sensibility  to  the  beautiful  is  not  cherished  ;  and  I  know  of  no  con- 
dition in  life  from  which  it  should  be  excluded.  Of  all  luxuries  this 
is  the  cheapest  and  most  at  hand  ;  and  it  seems  to  me  to  be  most 
important  to  those  conditions,  where  coarse  labor  tends  to  give  a 
grossness  to  the  mind. 

8.  From  the  diffusion  of  the  sense  of  beauty  in  ancient  Greece, 
and  of  the  taste  for  music  in  modern  Germany,  we  learn  that  the 
people  at  large  may  partake  of  refined  gratifications,  which  have 
hitherto  been  thought  to  be  necessarily  restricted  to  a  few. —  William 
Ellery  Charming. 

Analysis. 

First  Paragraph. — What  is  meant  by  an  all  pervading 
presence  f  Parse  presence.  What  part  of  speech  is  the 
phrase  in  the  numberless  flowers  of  spring  f  What  is  the 
antecedent  of  It,  in  the  sentences  which  follow  presence? 
Parse  out.  Construe  in  the  hues  of  the  shell  and  precious 
stone.     Define  and  compare  precious. 

Second  Paragraph. — Analyze  the  first  sentence.  What 
is  meant  by  minute  objects  t  In  what  sense  do  the  greatest 
objects  overflow  with  beauty?  Parse  all.  What  is  meant 
by  The  universe  is  its  temple  f  What  is  meant  by  who  are 
alive  to  it  f     Construe  with  it,  on  every  side. 

Third  Paragraph. — Parse  Now.  Use  now  as  another 
part  of  speech.  Parse  so,  in  so  precious.  Construe  with 
our  tenderest  and  noblest  feelings.  Compare  tender,  noble. 
What  does  it  represent,  in  the  third  line  ?  What  is  the  logical 
subject  of  is  painful  f  Parse  as  if.  Parse  tenants.  Con- 
strue to  the  world  by  the  want  of  culture  of  this  spiritual 
endowment.     Define  spiritual,  endowment,  infinite. 

Fourth  Paragraph. — What  is  the  object  of  Suppose  f  of 
to  see  f     Construe  lined  with  the  choicest  pictures  of  Raphael; 


SELECTIONS   FOR   STUDY.  195 

also  filled  with  statues  of  the  most  exquisite  workmanship. 
What  is  the  object  of  to  learn  f  Analyze  the  sentence  be- 
ginning with  hoiv.  Construe  which  in  vain  courted  their 
notice  !     Define  courted  and  use  it  in  a  simple  sentence. 

Fifth  Paragraph. — Define  husbandman.  Parse  is  living. 
What  is  meant  by  divine  Artist  f  Name  some  of  the  visible 
works  of  the  divine  Artist.  Parse  would  be  elevated,  in  the 
second  line.  Construe  which  shines  forth  in  their  forms, 
hues,  proportions,  and  moral  expression  !  What  is  meant  by 
moral  expression?  What  is  meant  by  mysterious  charm  in 
the  elegant  arts  f  in  literature  ? 

Sixth  Paragraph. — Name  three  books  that  have  great 
beauty.  Parse  have,  in  the  first  sentence.  What  kind  of  a 
verb  is  it  as  here  used  ?  Use  it  as  an  auxiliary  verb.  Parse 
are  wronged.  Construe  the  last  clause.  What  two  distinct 
offices  does  the  word  when  fill  in  this  sentence  ?  Construe 
if  not  linked  with  beauty.  Why  is  truth  wronged,  if  not 
linked  with  beauty  ?  Parse  arrayed.  Parse  this.  Construe 
their  natural  and  fit  attire. 

Seventh  Paragraph. — Analyze  the  first  sentence.  Parse 
whom.  Parse  is  cherished.  Parse  ivhich,  in  the  third  line. 
Analyze  the  sentence  beginning  with  Of.  Construe  where 
coarse  labor  tends  to  give  a  grossness  to  the  mind.  What  is 
meant  by  coarse  labor  ?     Define  grossness. 

Eighth  Paragraph. — Define  diffusion  and  use  it  in  a  simple 
sentence.  Locate  Greece.  Locate  Germany.  Analyze  the 
paragraph.  Parse  learn,  in  the  second  line.  Name  the 
object  of  learn.  Construe  the  last  clause.  Parse  which. 
Parse  have  been  thought.  What  may  we  learn  from  the 
educated  masses  in  Greece  and  Germany  ? 


196  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

III.    The  Closing  Year. 

1.  Tis  midnight's  holy  hour — and  silence  now 
Is  brooding,  like  a  gentle  spirit,  o'er 

The  still  and  pulseless  world.     Hark  !  on  the  winds 

The  bell's  deep  tones  are  swelling — 'tis  the  knell 

Of  the  departed  year.     No  funeral  train 

Is  sweeping  past ;  yet,  on  the  stream  and  wood, 

With  melancholy  light,  the  moonbeams  rest 

Like  a  pale,  spotless  shroud  ;  the  air  is  stirred 

As  by  a  mourner's  sigh  ;  and  on  yon  cloud, 

That  floats  so  still  and  placidly  through  heaven, 

The  spirits  of  the  seasons  seem  to  stand, — 

Young  Spring,  bright  Summer,  Autumn's  solemn  form, 

And  Winter  with  his  aged  locks, — and  breathe, 

In  mournful  cadences,  that  come  abroad 

Like  the  far  wind-harp's  wild  and  touching  wail, 

A  melancholy  dirge  o'er  the  dead  year, 

Gone  from  the  earth  forever. 

2.  'Tis  a  time 
For  memory  and  for  tears.     Within  the  deep, 
Still  chambers  of  the  heart,  a  spectre  dim, 
Whose  tones  are  like  the  wizard  voice  of  Time, 
Heard  from  the  tomb  of  ages,  points  its  cold 
And  solemn  finger  to  the  beautiful 

And  holy  visions  that  have  passed  away, 

And  left  no  shadow  of  their  loveliness 

On  the  dead  waste  of  life.     That  spectre  lifts 

The  coffin-lid  of  Hope,  and  Joy,  and  Love, 

And,  bending  mournfully  above  the  pale, 

Sweet  forms  that  slumber  there,  scatters  dead  flowers 

O'er  what  has  passed  to  nothingness. 

3.  The  year 
Has  gone,  and  with  it,  many  a  glorious  throng 
Of  happy  dreams.     Its  mark  is  on  each  brow, 
Its  shadow  in  each  heart.     In  its  swift  course, 


SELECTIONS   FOR    STUDY.  197 

It  waved  its  sceptre  o'er  the  beautiful — 
And  they  are  not.     It  laid  its  pallid  hand 
Upon  the  strong  man — and  the  haughty  form 
Is  fallen,  and  the  flashing  eye  is  dim. 
It  trod  the  hall  of  revelry,  where  thronged 
The  bright  and  joyous — and  the  tearful  wail 
Of  stricken  ones  is  heard,  where  erst  the  song 
And  reckless  shout  resounded. 

4.  It  passed  o'er 

The  battle-plain,  where  sword,  and  spear,  and  shield, 
Flashed  in  the  light  of  mid-day, — and  the  strength 
Of  serried  hosts  is  shivered,  and  the  grass, 
Green  from  the  soil  of  carnage,  waves  above 
The  crushed  and  mouldering  skeleton.     It  came, 
And  faded  like  a  wreath  of  mist  at  eve  ; 
Yet,  ere  it  melted  in  the  viewless  air, 
It  heralded  its  millions  to  their  home 
In  the  dim  land  of  dreams. 

5.  Remorseless  Time  ! 
Fierce  spirit  of  the  glass  and  scythe  ! — what  power 
Can  stay  him  in  his  silent  course,  or  melt 

His  iron  heart  to  pity  ?     On,  still  on 

He  presses,  and  forever.     The  proud  bird, 

The  condor  of  the  Andes,  that  can  soar 

Through  heaven's  unfathomable  depths,  or  brave 

The  fury  of  the  northern  hurricane, 

And  bathe  his  plumage  in  the  thunder's  home, 

Folds  his  broad  wings  at  nightfall,  and  sinks  down 

To  rest  upon  his  mountain  crag, — but  Time 

Knows  not  the  weight  of  sleep  or  weariness, 

And  night's  deep  darkness  has  no  chain  to  bind 

His  rushing  pinions. 

6.  Revolutions  sweep 
O'er  earth,  like  troubled  visions  o'er  the  breast 
Of  dreaming  sorrow  ;  cities  rise  and  sink, 


198  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Like  bubbles  on  the  water  ;  fiery  isles 

Spring  blazing  from  the  ocean,  and  go  back 

To  their  mysterious  caverns  ;  mountains  rear 

To  heaven  their  bald  and  blackened  cliffs,  and  bow 

Their  tall  heads  to  the  plain  ;  new  empires  rise, 

Gathering  the  strength  of  hoary  centuries, 

And  rush  down  like  the  Alpine  avalanche, 

Startling  the  nations, — and  the  very  stars, 

Yon  bright  and  burning  blazonry  of  God, 

Glitter  a  while  in  their  eternal  depths, 

And,  like  the  Pleiad,  loveliest  of  their  train, 

Shoot  from  their  glorious  spheres,  and  pass  away, 

To  darkle  in  the  trackless  void  :  yet  Time — 

Time,  the  tomb-builder,  holds  his  fierce  career, 

Dark,  stern,  all-pitiless,  and  pauses  not 

Amid  the  mighty  wrecks  that  strew  his  path, 

To  sit  and  muse,  like  other  conquerors, 

Upon  the  fearful  ruin  he  has  wrought. 

— George  D.  Prentice. 

Analysis. 

First  Stanza. —  Why  holy  hour  ?  What  kind  of  a  sentence 
is  the  first  sentence  ?  Name  the  phrases  in  the  first  sen- 
tence. Why  still  and  pulseless  world  f  Parse  Hark  !  What 
is  the  antecedent  of  '  Tis  f  What  kind  of  a  verb-phrase  is  are 
swelling  f  What  part  of  speech  is  Of  the  departed  year  f 
Parse  past.  Parse  yet.  Name  the  phrases  that  modify  rest. 
What  kind  of  a  clause  is  That  floats  so  still  and  placidly  through 
heaven  f  Why  is  the  clause  introduced  by  that  f  Why  say 
Young  Spring,  bright  Summer,  Autumn's  solemn  form,  and 
Winter  with  his  aged  locks  f  What  is  the  grammatical  subject 
of  breathe  f  Give  the  principal  parts  of  breathe.  Breathe 
what  ?  What  part  of  speech  is  Like  the  far  wind-harp's  wild 
and  touching  wail?     What  does  Gone  from  the  earth  forever 


SELECTIONS   FOR    STUDY.  199 

modify  ?    As  a  whole,  how  is  it  used  ?   What  part  of  speech 
is  from  the  earth  forever  ?     Give  the  principal  parts  of  Go. 

Second  Stanza. — Why  say,  'Tis  a  time  for  memory  and 
for  tears  f  What  part  of  speech  is  Within  the  deep,  still 
chambers  of  the  heart  f  Name  the  principal  elements  of  the 
second  sentence.  What  is  meant  by  a  spectre  dim  f  What 
visions  f  What  kind  of  a  clause  is  that  have  passed  away, 
etc.  ?  Is  the  clause  restrictive  or  coordinate  ?  Why  are 
Hope  and  Joy  and  Love  capitalized?  Construe  bending 
mournfully  above  the  pale,  sweet  forms.  Parse  what,  in  the 
last  line.     Parse  has  passed. 

Third  Stanza. — Parse  has  gone,  of  happy  dreams.  What 
is  meant  in  the  second  sentence  ?  What  is  meant  by  the 
phrase,  o\r  the  beautiful?  What  part  of  speech  is  the 
phrase?  Why  say  pallid  hand  f  Parse  is  fallen.  Parse  is 
dim.  Construe  where  thronged  the  bright  and  joyous.  Parse 
is  heard.  Construe  where  erst  the  song  and  7-eckless  shout 
resounded.     Why  reckless  shout  f 

Fourth  Stanza. — It  passed.  What  passed?  Construe 
where  sword,  and  spear,  and  shield,  flashed  in  the  light  of  mid- 
day. Parse  is  shivered,  crushed,  mouldering.  Parse  yet,  ere, 
in  the  viewless  air.  Why  say  viewless  air  ?  Construe  In  the 
dim  land  of  dreams. 

Fifth  Stanza. — Parse  Time.  Construe  Fierce  spirit  of  the 
glass  and  scythe !  Why  use  him,  in  the  third  line  ?  Construe 
The  condor  of  the  Andes.  Name  the  principal  elements  of 
the  sentence  following  forever,  in  the  fifth  line.  Why  is  that 
used,  in  the  sixth  line  ?  What  kind  of  phrase  is  To  rest  upon 
his  mountain  crag  f  Parse  or,  in  the  third  line  from  the  last. 
What  part  of  speech  is  to  bind  his  rushing  pinions  ?  Parse 
rushing.     Define  pinions. 


200  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

Sixth  Stanza. — How  do  revolutions  sweep  o'er  earth? 
What  kind  of  a  phrase  is  like  troubled  visions  o'er  the  breast 
of  dreaming  sorrow  ?  Is  it  a  simple,  complex,  or  compound 
phrase  ?  Is  it  used  as  an  adjective  or  as  an  adverb  ?  How 
do  cities  rise  and  sink  ?  Construe  blazing  from  the  ocean. 
Construe  from  the  ocean.  Construe  To  their  mysterious  cav- 
erns. Why  say  mysterious  caverns  f  Construe  To  heaven  their 
bald  and  blackened  cliffs.  Construe  Gathering  the  strength  of 
hoary  centuries.  Parse  Startling.  Construe  Yon  bright  and 
burning  blazonry  of  God.  Construe  loveliest  of  their  train. 
Construe  the  tomb-builder.  Parse  dark,  stern,  amid  the 
mighty  wrecks.  What  wrecks  ?  Construe  To  sit  and  muse. 
What  is  meant  by  like  other  conquerors  ?  What  ruin  ?  What 
does  the  clause  he  has  wrought  limit  ? 

IV.     Proper  Distribution  of  Time. 

1.  Time  we  ought  to  consider  as  a  sacred  trust,  committed  to  us  by 
God  ;  of  which  we  are  now  the  depositaries,  and  are  to  render  an 
account  at  the  last.  That  portion  of  it  which  he  has  allotted  to  us  is 
intended  partly  for  the  concerns  of  this  world,  partly  for  those  of  the 
next.  Let  each  of  these  occupy,  in  the  distribution  of  our  time,  that 
space  which  properly  belongs  to  it. 

2.  Let  not  the  hours  of  hospitality  and  pleasure  interfere  with  the 
discharge  of  our  necessary  affairs  ;  and  let  not  what  we  call  necessary 
affairs  encroach  upon  the  time  which  is  due  to  devotion.  To  every- 
thing there  is  a  season,  and  a  time  for  every  purpose  under  heaven. 
If  we  delay  till  to-morrow  what  ought  to  be  done  to-day,  we  over- 
charge the  morrow  with  a  burden  which  belongs  not  to  it.  We  load 
the  wheels  of  time,  and  prevent  them  from  carrying  us  along  smoothly. 

3.  He  who  every  morning  plans  the  transactions  of  the  day,  and 
follows  out  that  plan,  carries  on  a  thread  which  will  guide  him 
through  a  labyrinth  of  the  most  busy  life.  The  orderly  arrangement 
of  his  time  is  like  a  ray  of  light,  which  darts  itself  through  all  his 
affairs.     But  where  no  plan   is  laid,  where  the  disposal  of  time  is 


SELECTIONS   FOR   STUDY.  201 

surrendered  merely  to  the  chance  of  incidents,  all  things  lie  huddled 
together  in  one  chaos,  which  admits  neither  of  distribution  nor  review. 

4.  The  first  requisite  for  introducing  order  into  the  management  of 
time,  is  to  be  impressed  with  a  just  sense  of  its  value.  Let  us  con- 
sider well  how  much  depends  upon  it,  and  how  fast  it  flies  away. 
The  bulk  of  men  are  in  nothing  more  capricious  and  inconsistent 
than  in  their  appreciation  of  time.  When  they  think  of  it  as  the 
measure  of  their  continuance  on  earth,  they  highly  prize  it,  and  with 
the  greatest  anxiety  seek  to  lengthen  it  out. 

5.  But  when  they  view  it  in  separate  parcels,  they  appear  to  hold 
it  in  contempt,  and  squander  it  with  inconsiderate  confusion.  While 
they  complain  that  life  is  short,  they  are  often  wishing  its  different 
periods  at  an  end.  Covetous  of  every  other  possession,  of  time  only 
they  are  prodigal.  They  allow  every  idle  man  to  be  master  of  this 
property,  and  make  every  frivolous  occupation  welcome  that  can  help 
them  to  consume  it. 

6.  Manhood  is  disgraced  by  the  consequences  of  neglected  youth. 
Old  age,  oppressed  by  cares  that  belonged  to  a  former  period,  labors 
under  a  burden  not  his  own.  At  the  close  of  life,  the  dying  man 
beholds  with  anguish  that  his  days  are  finishing,  when  his  preparation 
for  eternity  is  hardly  commenced.  Such  are  the  effects  of  a  disor- 
derly waste  of  time,  through  not  attending  to  its  value.  Everything 
in  the  life  of  such  persons  is  misplaced.  Nothing  is  performed  aright, 
from  not  being  performed  in  due  season. 

7.  But  he  who  is  orderly  in  the  distribution  of  his  time,  takes  the 
proper  method  of  escaping  those  manifold  evils.  He  is  justly  said 
to  redeem  the  time.  By  proper  management  he  prolongs  it.  He  lives 
much  in  a  little  space  ;  more  in  a  few  years  than  others  do  in  many. 
He  can  live  to  God  and  his  own  soul,  and  at  the  same  time  attend  to 
all  the  lawful  interests  of  the  present  world.  He  looks  back  on  the 
past  and  provides  for  the  future. — Hugh  Blair. 

Analysis. 

First  Paragraph. — In  what  case  is  Time,  the  first  word  ? 
Parse  ought.     Construe  committed  to  us  by  God.     Parse  de- 


202  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

positaries.  What  is  meant  by  to  render  an  account  at  the 
lastf  What  part  of  speech  is  at  the  last?  Analyze  the 
sentence  beginning  with  That.  Construe  which  he  has  al- 
lotted to  us.  Parse  which.  Parse  Let,  in  the  last  sentence. 
Parse  in  the  distributioyi  of  our  time.  What  space  ?  Parse 
occupy,  that,  which. 

Second  Paragraph. — Analyze  the  sentence  ending  with 
affairs.  Parse  Let,  in  the  first  line  ;  what  in  the  second  line, 
which,  in  the  third  line  ;  there,  in  the  fourth  line.  What 
kind  of  a  phrase  is  for  every  purpose  under  heaven  f  What 
part  of  speech  is  the  phrase  ?  Parse  what,  in  the  next  sen- 
tence. Parse  morrow.  Parse  which,  in  the  same  sentence. 
Construe  from  carrying  us  along  smoothly. 

Third  Paragraph. — Analyze  the  first  sentence.  Con- 
strue which  will  guide  him  through  the  labyrinth  of  a  busy  life. 
As  a  unit  what  part  of  speech  is  the  clause  ?  What  two 
offices  does  which  perform?  Analyze  the  next  sentence. 
Analyze  the  sentence  beginning  with  But  Parse  Bid,  hud- 
dled, is  surrendered,  to  the  chance  of  incidents. 

Fourth  Paragraph. — Analyze  the  first  sentence.  Parse 
is.  Construe  with  a  just  sense  of  its  value.  Parse  Let,  in  the 
second  line.  Parse  consider.  Name  the  complements  of  are, 
in  the  third  sentence.  Analyze  the  sentence  beginning  with 
When.     What  kind  of  a  conjunction  is  When? 

Fifth  Paragraph. — Analyze  the  first  sentence.  To  what 
does  it  refer,  in  this  sentence  ?  Parse  While,  the  first  word 
in  the  second  sentence.  Use  while  as  a  verb.  Construe 
that  life  is  short.  Parse  are  wishing.  Construe  Covetous  of 
every  other  possession.  Parse  Covetous.  Define  Covetous. 
Use  it  in  a  sentence.     Parse  are  prodigal.     Define  prodigal. 


SELECTIONS   FOR   STUDY.  203 

Use  it  in  a  sentence.  What  is  meant  by  every  idle  man  to  be 
master  of  this  property  f  What  property  f  Construe  to  con- 
sume it. 

Sixth  Paragraph. — Why  is  manhood  disgraced  by  indo- 
lence in  youth  ?  Is  condition  a  growth  or  a  gift  ?  Analyze 
the  second  sentence.  What  part  of  speech  is  the  phrase 
beginning  with  oppressed  f  What  cares  t  Construe  not  his 
own.  Parse  are  finishing,  is  commenced,  are  effects.  Analyze 
the  next  two  sentences.     Parse  is  misplaced.    Parse  aright. 

Seventh  Paragraph. — Analyze  the  first  sentence.  Parse 
who,  the  third  word.  Define  manifold.  In  what  sense  may 
one  prolong  time  f  Parse  much,  in  a  little  space.  Parse  or 
construe  than  others  do  in  many.  Analyze  the  sentence  be- 
ginning with  He  can  live,  etc.  Parse  back,  in  the  last  sen- 
tence.    Parse  looks,  provides. 


V.     Elegy  in  a  Country  Church-Yard. 

TO  THE  TEACHER :  Require  the  class  to  give  the 
proximate  analysis  of  the  following  selections  by 
stating:  (1)  the  kind  of  sentence;  (2)  the  complete 
subject;  (3)  the  complete  predicate;  (4)  the  mean- 
ing of  the  sentence  in  the  pupil's  own  language. 

1.  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 

The  lowing  herd  winds  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 
The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  world  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

2.  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 

And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds, 
Save  where  the  beetle  wheels  his  droning  flight, 
And  drowsy  tinklings  lull  the  distant  folds  ; 


204  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

3.  Save  that  from  yonder  ivy-mantled  tower 

The  moping  owl  does  to  the  moon  complain 
Of  such  as,  wandering  near  her  secret  bower, 
Molest  her  ancient  solitary  reign. 

4.  Beneath  those  rugged  elms,  that  yew-tree's  shade, 

Where  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  mouldering  heap, 
Each  in  his  narrow  cell  forever  laid, 

The  rude  forefathers  of  the  hamlet  sleep. 

5.  The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  morn, 

The  swallow  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed, 
The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 
No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. 

6.  For  them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  burn, 

Or  busy  housewife  ply  her  evening  care  ; 
No  children  run  to  lisp  their  sire's  return, 
Or  climb  his  knees,  the  envied  kiss  to  share. 

7.  Oft  did  the  harvest  to  their  sickle  yield, 

Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke  : 
How  jocund  did  they  drive  their  team  afield  ! 

How  bowed  the  woods  beneath  their  sturdy  stroke  ! 

8.  Let  not  Ambition  mock  their  useful  toil, 

Their  homely  joys,  and  destiny  obscure  ; 
Nor  Grandeur  hear,  with  a  disdainful  smile, 
The  short  and  simple  annals  of  the  poor. 

9.  The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth,  e'er  gave, 
Await  alike  th'  inevitable  hour  : 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 

10.    Nor  you,  ye  proud,  impute  to  these  the  fault, 
If  Memory  o'er  their  tomb  no  trophies  raise, 
Where  through  the  long-drawn  aisle  and  fretted  vault 
The  pealing  anthem  swells  the  note  of  praise. 


SELECTIONS   FOR   STUDY.  205 

11.  Can  storied  urn,  or  animated  bust, 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ? 
Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 

Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death  ? 

12.  Perhaps  in  this  neglected  spot  is  laid 

Some  heart  once  pregnant  with  celestial  fire  ; 
Hands  that  the  rod  of  empire  might  have  swayed, 
Or  waked  to  ecstasy  the  living  lyre  : 

13.  But  Knowledge  to  their  eyes  her  ample  page, 

Rich  with  the  spoils  of  time,  did  ne'er  unroll ; 
Chill  Penury  repressed  their  noble  rage, 
And  froze  the  genial  current  of  the  soul. 

14.  Full  many  a  gem,  of  purest  ray  serene, 

The  dark,  unfathomed  caves  of  ocean  bear  ; 
Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. 

15.  Some  village  Hampden,  that  with  dauntless  breast 

The  little  tyrant  of  his  fields  withstood, — 
Some  mute,  inglorious  Milton, — here  may  rest ; 
Some  Cromwell,  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood. 

16.  Th'  applause  of  listening  senates  to  command, 

The  threats  of  pain  and  ruin  to  despise, 
To  scatter  plenty  o'er  a  smiling  land, 

And  read  their  history  in  a  nation's  eyes, 

17.  Their  lot  forbade  :  nor  circumscribed  alone 

Their  growing  virtues,  but  their  crimes  confined  ; 
Forbade  to  wade  through  slaughter  to  a  throne, 
And  shut  the  gates  of  mercy  on  mankind  ; 

18.  The  struggling  pangs  of  conscious  truth  to  hide, 

To  quench  the  blushes  of  ingenuous  shame, 
Or  heap  the  shrine  of  luxury  and  pride 
With  incense  kindled  at  the  Muse's  flame. 


206  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

19.  Far  from  the  maddening  crowd's  ignoble  strife, 

Their  sober  wishes  never  learned  to  stray  ; 
Along  the  cool,  sequestered  vale  of  life 

They  kept  the  noiseless  tenor  of  their  way. 

20.  Yet  e'en  these  bones  from  insult  to  protect, 

Some  frail  memorial  still  erected  nigh, 
With  uncouth  rhymes  and  shapeless  sculpture  decked, 
Implores  the  passing  tribute  of  a  sigh. 

21.  Their  name,  their  years,  spelt  by  th'  unlettered  Muse, 

The  place  of  fame  and  elegy  supply  ; 

And  many  a  holy  text  around  she  strews, 

That  teach  the  rustic  moralist  to  die. 

22.  For  who,  to  dumb  forgetfulness  a  prey, 

This  pleasing,  anxious  being  e'er  resigned, 
Left  the  warm  precincts  of  the  cheerful  day, 
Nor  cast  one  longing,  lingering  look  behind  ? 

23.  On  some  fond  breast  the  parting  soul  relies, 

Some  pious  drops  the  closing  eye  requires  ; 
E'en  from  the  tomb  the  voice  of  nature  cries, 
E'en  in  our  ashes  live  their  wonted  fires. 

24.  For  thee,  who,  mindful  of  th'  unhonored  dead, 

Dost  in  these  lines  their  artless  tale  relate, 
If  'chance,  by  lonely  contemplation  led, 

Some  kindred  spirit  shall  inquire  thy  fate, — 

25.  Haply  some  hoary-headed  swain  may  say, 

"  Oft  have  we  seen  him  at  the  peep  of  dawn, 
Brushing  with  hasty  steps  the  dews  away, 
To  meet  the  sun  upon  the  upland  lawn. 

26.  "  There,  at  the  foot  of  yonder  nodding  beech, 

That  wreathes  its  old  fantastic  roots  so  high, 
His  listless  length  at  noontide  would  he  stretch, 
And  pore  upon  the  brook  that  babbles  by. 


SELECTIONS   FOR   STUDY.  207 

27.  "  Hard  by  yon  wood,  now  smiling  as  in  scorn, 

Muttering  his  wayward  fancies,  would  he  rove, 
Now  drooping,  woful-wan,  like  one  forlorn, 

Or  crazed  with  care,  or  crossed  in  hopeless  love. 

28.  "  One  morn  I  missed  him  on  the  customed  hill, 

Along  the  heath,  and  near  his  favorite  tree  : 
Another  came, — nor  yet  beside  the  rill, 

Nor  up  the  lawn,  nor  at  the  wood,  was  he  : 

29.  "  The  next,  with  dirges  due,  in  sad  array, 

Slow  through  the  churchway  path  we  saw  him  borne  ; 
Approach  and  read  (for  thou  canst  read)  the  lay 
Graved  on  the  stone  beneath  yon  aged  thorn." 

THE  EPITAPH. 

Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  Earth, 
A  youth  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown  : 

Fair  Science  frowned  not  on  his  humele  birth, 
And  Melancholy  marked  him  for  her  own. 

Large  was  his  bounty,   and  his  soul  sincere. 
Heaven  did  a  recompense  as  largely  send  : 

He  gave  to  misery — all  he  had — a  tear, 

He  gained  from  heaven  ('twas  all  he  wished)  a  friend. 

No  further  seek  his  merits  to  disclose, 

Or  draw  his  frailties  from  their  dread  abode, 

(There  they  alike  in  trembling  hope  repose,) 
The  bosom  of  his  Father  and  his  God. 

—  Thomas  Gray. 

VI.     Memory  and  Hope. 

PART    FIRST. 

1.  Hope  is  the  leading-string  of  youth  ;  memory  the  staff  of  age. 
Yet,  for  a  long  time,  they  were  at  variance,  and  scarcely  ever  associ- 
ated together.     Memory  was  almost  always  grave,  nay,  sad  and  mel- 


208  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

ancholy.  She  delighted  in  silence  and  repose,  amid  rocks  and  water- 
falls ;  and  whenever  she  raised  her  eyes  from  the  ground,  it  was  only 
to  look  back  over  her  shoulder. 

2.  Hope  was  a  smiling,  dancing,  rosy  boy,  with  sparkling  eyes, 
and  it  was  impossible  to  look  upon  him  without  being  inspired  by  his 
gay  and  sprightly  buoyancy.  Wherever  he  went,  he  diffused  glad- 
ness and  joy  around  him  ;  the  eyes  of  the  young  sparkled  brighter 
than  ever  at  his  approach  ;  old  age,  as  it  cast  its  dim  glances  at  the 
blue  vault  of  heaven,  seemed  inspired  with  new  vigor  ;  the  flowers 
looked  more  gay,  the  grass  more  green,  the  birds  sung  more  cheerily, 
and  all  nature  seemed  to  sympathize  in  his  gladness.  Memory  was 
of  mortal  birth,  but  Hope  partook  of  immortality. 

3.  One  day  they  chanced  to  meet,  and  Memory  reproached  Hope 
with  being  a  deceiver.  She  charged  him  with  deluding  mankind  with 
visionary,  impracticable  schemes,  and  exciting  expectations  that  led 
only  to  disappointment  and  regret ;  with  being  the  ignis  fatuus  of 
youth,  and  the  scourge  of  old  age. 

4.  But  Hope  cast  back  upon  her  the  charge  of  deceit,  and  main- 
tained that  the  pictures  of  the  past  were  as  much  exaggerated  by 
Memory  as  were  the  anticipations  of  Hope.  He  declared  that  she 
looked  at  objects  at  a  great  distance  in  the  past,  he  in  the  future,  and 
that  this  distance  magnified  everything.  "  Let  us  make  the  circuit  of 
the  world,"  said  he,  "and  try  the  experiment."  Memory  reluc- 
tantly consented,  and  they  went  their  way  together. 

5.  The  first  person  they  met  was  a  schoolboy,  lounging  lazily  along, 
and  stopping  every  moment  to  gaze  around,  as  if  unwilling  to  pro- 
ceed on  his  way.  By  and  by  he  sat  down  and  burst  into  tears. 
"Whither  so  fast,  my  good  lad?"  asked  Hope,  jeeringly. 

6.  "I  am  going  to  school,"  replied  the  lad,  "to  study,  when  I 
would  rather,  a  thousand  times,  be  at  play  ;  and  sit  on  a  bench  with 
a  book  in  my  hand,  while  I  long  to  be  sporting  in  the  fields.  But 
never  mind,  I  shall  be  a  man  soon,  and  then  I  shall  be  as  free  as  the 
air."  Saying  this,  he  skipped  away  merrily,  in  the  hope  of  soon  being 
a  man.  "  It  is  thus  you  play  upon  the  inexperience  of  youth,"  said 
Memory,  reproachfully. 

7.  Passing  onward,  they  met  a  beautiful  girl,   pacing  slowly  and 


SELECTIONS   FOR   STUDY.  209 

with  a  melancholy  air,  behind  a  party  of  gay  young  men  and  maidens, 
who  walked  arm  in  arm  with  each  other,  and  were  flirting  and  ex- 
changing all  those  little  harmless  courtesies  which  nature  prompts  on 
such  occasions.  They  were  all  gayly  dressed  in  silks  and  ribbons  ; 
but  the  little  girl  had  on  a  simple  frock,  a  homely  apron,  and  clumsy, 
thick-soled  shoes. 

8.  "Why  do  you  not  join  yonder  group,1 '  asked  Hope,  "  and  par- 
take of  their  gayety,  my  pretty  little  girl?"  "Alas!"  replied  she, 
"  they  take  no  notice  of  me.  They  call  me  a  child.  But  I  shall  soon 
be  a  woman,  and  then  I  shall  be  so  happy  !"  Inspired  by  this  hope, 
she  quickened  her  pace,  and  soon  was  seen  dancing  along  merrily  with 
the  rest. 

9.  In  this  manner  they  wended  their  way,  from  nation  to  nation, 
and  clime  to  clime,  until  they  had  made  the  circuit  of  the  universe. 
Wherever  they  came,  they  found  the  human  race,  who  at  this  time 
were  all  young  (it  being  not  many  years  since  the  first  creation  of 
mankind),  repining  at  the  present,  and  looking  forward  to  a  riper  age 
for  happiness.  All  anticipated  some  future  good,  and  Memory  had 
scarce  anything  to  do  but  cast  looks  of  reproach  at  her  young  com- 
panion. 

10.  "Let  us  return  home,"  said  she,  "to  that  delightful  spot 
where  I  first  drew  my  breath.  I  long  to  repose  among  its  beautiful 
bowers  ;  to  listen  to  the  brooks  that  murmured  a  thousand  times 
more  musically  ;  to  the  birds  that  sung  a  thousand  times  more  sweetly  ; 
and  to  the  echoes  that  were  softer  than  any  I  have  since  heard.  Ah  ! 
there  is  nothing  on  earth  so  enchanting  as  the  scenes  of  my  early 
youth!" 

PART    SECOND. 

1.  Hope  indulged  himself  in  a  sly,  significant  smile,  and  they  pro- 
ceeded on  their  return  home.  As  they  journeyed  but  slowly,  many 
years  elapsed  ere  they  approached  the  spot  from  which  they  had  de- 
parted. It  so  happened,  one  day,  that  they  met  an  old  man,  bending 
under  the  weight  of  years,  and  walking  with  trembling  steps,  leaning 
on  his  staff. 

2.  Memory  at  once  recognized  him  as  the  youth  they  had  seen  going 
to  school,  on  their  first  onset  in  the  tour  of  the  world.     As  they  came 

14 


210  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

nearer,  the  old  man  reclined  on  his  staff,  and,  looking  at  Hope,  who, 
being  immortal,  was  still  a  blithe,  young  boy,  sighed,  as  if  his  heart 
was  breaking.      "  What  aileth  thee,  old  man?"  asked  the  youth. 

3.  "What  aileth  me?"  he  replied,  in  a  feeble,  faltering  voice. 
"What  should  ail  me,  but  old  age?  I  have  outlived  my  health  and 
strength  ;  I  have  survived  all  that  was  near  and  dear  ;  I  have  seen  all 
that  I  loved,  or  that  loved  me,  struck  down  to  the  earth  like  dead 
leaves  in  autumn  ;  and  now  I  stand  like  an  old  tree,  withering,  alone 
in  the  world,  without  roots,  without  branches,  and  without  verdure. 
I  have  only  just  enough  of  sensation  to  know  that  I  am  miserable  ; 
and  the  recollection  of  the  happiness  of  my  youthful  days,  when,  care- 
less, and  full  of  blissful  anticipations,  I  was  a  laughing,  merry  boy, 
only  adds  to  the  miseries  I  now  endure." 

4.  "  Behold,"  said  Memory,  "  the  consequence  of  thy  deceptions," 
and  she  looked  reproachfully  at  her  companion.  "Behold  !"  replied 
Hope,  "the  deception  practised  by  thyself.  Thou  persuadest  him 
that  he  was  happy  in  his  youth.  Dost  thou  remember  the  boy  we  met 
when  we  first  set  out  together,  who  was  weeping  on  his  way  to 
school,  and  sighed  to  be  a  man?"  Memory  cast  down  her  eyes  and 
was  silent. 

5.  A  little  way  onward,  they  came  to  a  miserable  cottage,  at  the 
door  of  which  was  an  aged  woman,  meanly  clad,  and  shaking  with 
palsy.  She  sat  all  alone,  her  head  resting  on  her  bosom,  and,  as  the 
pair  approached,  vainly  tried  to  raise  it  up  to  look  at  them.  "  Good 
morrow,  old  lady,  and  all  happiness  to  you,"  cried  Hope,  gayly  ;  and 
the  old  woman  thought  it  was  a  long  time  since  she  had  heard  such  a 
cheering  salutation. 

6.  "  Happiness  !"  said  she,  in  a  voice  that  quivered  with  weakness 
and  infirmity.  ' '  Happiness  !  I  have  not  known  it  since  I  was  a  little 
girl,  without  care  or  sorrow.  Oh,  I  remember  those  delightful  days, 
when  I  thought  of  nothing  but  the  present  moment,  nor  cared  for  the 
future  or  the  past.  When  I  laughed,  and  played,  and  sung,  from 
morning  till  night,  and  envied  no  one,  and  wished  to  be  no  other  than 
I  was.  But  those  happy  times  are  passed,  never  to  return.  Oh, 
could  I  but  once  more  return  to  the  days  of  my  childhood  !" 

7.  The  old  woman  sunk  back  on  her  seat,   and  the  tears  flowed 


SELECTIONS   FOR   STUDY.  211 

from  her  hollow  eyes.  Memory  again  reproached  her  companion, 
but  he  only  asked  her  if  she  recollected  the  little  girl  they  had  met  a 
long  time  ago,  who  was  so  miserable  because  she  was  so  young? 
Memory  knew  it  well  enough,  and  said  not  another  word. 

8.  They  now  approached  their  home,  and  Memory  was  on  tiptoe, 
with  the  thought  of  once  more  enjoying  the  unequalled  beauties  of 
those  scenes  from  which  she  had  been  so  long  separated.  But  some- 
how or  other,  it  seemed  that  they  were  sadly  changed.  Neither  the 
grass  was  so  green,  the  flowers  so  sweet  and  lovely,  nor  did  the  brooks 
murmur,  the  echoes  answer,  nor  the  birds  sing  half  so  enchantingly, 
as  she  remembered  them  in  time  past. 

9.  "Alas!"  she  exclaimed,  "how  changed  is  everything!  I 
alone  am  the  same. "  "  Everything  is  the  same,  and  thou  alone  art 
changed,'1  answered  Hope.  "Thou  hast  deceived  thyself  in  the 
past,  just  as  much  as  I  deceive  others  in  the  future." 

10.  "What  are  you  disputing  about?"  asked  an  old  man,  whom 
they  had  not  observed  before,  though  he  was  standing  close  by  them. 
"I  have  lived  almost  fourscore  and  ten  years,  and  my  experience 
may,  perhaps,  enable  me  to  decide  between  you."  They  told  him 
the  occasion  of  their  disagreement,  and  related  the  history  of  their 
journey  round  the  earth. 

11.  The  old  man  smiled,  and,  for  a  few  moments,  sat  buried  in 
thought.  He  then  said  to  them,  "I,  too,  have  lived  to  see  all  the 
hopes  of  my  youth  turn  into  shadows,  clouds,  and  darkness,  and 
vanish  into  nothing.  I,  too,  have  survived  my  fortune,  my  friends, 
my  children;  the  hilarity  of  youth,  and  the  blessing  of  health." 
"And  dost  thou  not  despair?"  said  Memory.  "  No  ;  I  have  still  one 
hope  left  me. "      "  And  what  is  that  ?"      "  The  hope  of  heaven  !" 

12.  Memory  turned  towards  Hope,  threw  herself  into  his  arms, 
which  opened  to  receive  her,  and,  bursting  into  tears,  exclaimed, 
"Forgive  me,  I  have  done  thee  injustice.  Let  us  never  again  sepa- 
rate from  each  other."  "With  all  my  heart,"  said  Hope,  and  they 
continued  forever  after  to  travel  together,  hand  in  hand,  through  the 
world. — James  Kirk  Paulding. 

THE    END. 


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